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SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


A DISCUSSION 

OF  THE 

PROPER  PLACE  OF  GEOLOGY 

IN  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


BY 

ALEXANDER  WIXCHELL,  A.  M.,LL.  D.,F.  G.S.  A. 

Professor  of  Geology  and  Palaeontology  in  the  University  of  Michigan. 
Vice  President  of  the  Geological  Society  of  America. 

Author  of  World  Life  or  Comparative  Geology;  Sketches  of  Creation; 
Walks  and  Talks  in  the  Geological  Field:  Preadamites ; 
Sparks  from  a Geologist’s  Hammer;  Geological 
Excursions;  Geological  Studies:  Two 
Reports  on  the  Geology  of 
Minnesota,  etc.,  etc. 


CHICAGO 

S.  C.  GRIGGS  AND  COMPANY 
1889 


Copyright,  1889, 

By  S.  C.  GRIGGS  AND  COMPANY. 


PRESS  OF 

KNIGHT  & LEONARD  CO., 


CHICAGO. 


PBEFACE. 


HE  author  of  this  book  simply  yields  to  the  convictions  of  his 


judgment,  the  promptings  of  his  heart  and  the  lessons  of  his 
experience.  He  seeks  only  to  set  forth  the  value  of  geologic  study 
as  he  estimates  it,  as  he  feels  it,  as  he  has  learned  it  by  much  practice 
in  the  teaching  of  a wide  range  of  subjects. 

It  is  his  opinion  that  our  educational  authorities  come  widely 
short  of  a truthful  estimate  of  the  proper  position  of  geology  ; and 
he  believes  that  this  results  from  its  traditional  exclusion  from  the 
schools,  and  consequent  ignorance  of  the  fact  that  geology  possesses 
a power  of  broad  and  diversified  culture,  and  exerts  an  ethical  influ- 
ence which  deserves  to  be  held  in  highest  esteem.  He  believes  that 
the  earlier  study  of  geology  would  tend  to  conserve  the  proper  balance 
of  the  intellectual  powers  : and  a more  generous  allowance  of  space 
in  the  curriculum  of  the  schools  would  improve  popular  intelligence 
on  one  of  the  great  agencies  of  culture  and  civilization  ; and  would 
contribute  to  render  our  public  education  more  symmetrical  and 
more  liberal.  The  obstacles  to  the  larger  introduction  of  geology 
are  here  considered  both  theoretically  and  practically  ; and  an 
attempt  has  been  made  to  show  that  when  once  admitted  to  a stand- 
ing, geology  may  be  best  taught  by  bringing  the  pupil  face  to  face 
with  nature.  Though  in  this  method,  superior  success  will  be  won 
by  the  expert  teacher,  the  untrained,  with  facilities  now  placed  in 
his  hands,  has  no  reason  to  shrink  from  the  undertaking. 

The  author’s  treatment  of  the  themes  discussed  will  be  readily 
understood  from  the  analysis  which  follows.  Opinions  of  others  he 
has  criticised  with  freedom,  but  it  has  been  always  with  good  nature, 
and  with  a full  recognition  of  the  fact  that  linguistic  and  literary 
studies  possess  real  value  in  education,  and  ought  always  to  be 
retained  in  properly  balanced  relations  to  the  natural  sciences. 

University  of  Michigan, 

Ann  Arbor,  13  November,  1888. 


CONTENTS 


I.  Geology  in  the  Educational  Struggle  for  Existence. 

II.  Geology  in  the  Schools. 

III.  What  is  meant  by  Culture  ? 

IV.  Diversified  Aspects  of  Geological  Study. 

V.  Geology  and  Culture. 

VI.  Classics  and  Culture. 

VII.  The  Ethical  Influence  of  Geological  Study. 

VIII.  Geology  and  Modern  Civilization. 

IX.  Geology  in  the  Order  of  Studies. 

X.  Education  Values. 

XI.  Obstacles  to  Reform. 

XII.  Application  of  the  Observational  Method, 

XIII.  Principles  and  Methods  of  Geological  Study. 


ANALYSIS. 


Actual  Position  of  Geology  in  Public  Education. 

In  certain  colleges  and  universities.  (I. ) 

Rivalry  of  professional  studies. 

Rivalry  of  linguistic  and  literary  studies. 

Rivalry  of  studies  preparatory  for  teaching. 

Geologic  studies  purely  unprofessional. 

Illiberal  allowances  of  means  to  geology. 

In  the  schools.  (II.) 

General  results  of  inquiries. 

Specific  results  of  inquiries. 

Particulars  of  replies  to  inquiries. 

Why  geology  is  excluded. 

Opinions  on  geology  in  lower  schools. 

Why  Geology  Deserves  Better  Recognition. 

Its  study  promotes  intellectual  culture. 

What  is  meant  by  intellectual  culture  psychologically  consid- 
ered. (III.) 

Powers  of  mind  amenable  to  culture. 

Diversified  aspects  of  geological  study.  (IV.) 

Geology  discriminated  from  other  studies. 

Illustration  from  the  doctrine  of  a cooling  globe. 

Observation  and  induction. 

Retrospective  deduction. 

Prospective  deduction. 

Ethical  influence  of  geologic  conceptions. 

Adaptation  of  geology  to  ends  of  general  culture.  (V.) 
Observational  geology  and  its  adaptations. 

Inductive  geology  and  stimuli  to  imagination. 

Deductive  geology  and  stimuli  to  imagination. 

Classical  and  literary  studies  in  comparison.  (VI.) 

Other  inquiries  as  to  the  nature  of  culture. 


Vlll 


ANALYSIS. 


Opinions  of  authorities. 

Plato,  Payne,  Compayre,  Marmontel,  Renan,  Lakanal, 
Matthew  Arnold,  Chamberlain,  Lowell. 

Examination  of  Chamberlain’s  reasoning. 

Generalization  from  opinions  cited. 

The  charge  against  students  in  scientific  courses. 

Its  study  promotes  ethical  culture.  (VII. ) 

Ethical  influence  of  geological  conceptions. 

Exaltation  of  soul. 

Purification  of  popular  beliefs. 

Ethical  influence  of  geological  preoccupation  of  mind. 

Ethical  influence  as  a reflex  result. 

The  scientific  habit  of  mind. 

Its  study  promotes  modern  civilization.  (VIII.) 

Appeal  to  the  judgment  of  states. 

Geological  surveys  in  foreign  countries. 

Geological  surveys  in  American  states. 

Geological  surveys  under  the  general  government. 

Before  the  national  survey.  . 

The  national  survey. 

Other  testimonies  from  public  acts. 

Testimony  from  private  enterprises. 

The  rationale  of  applied  geology. 

Illustrations. 

Moral  contributions  to  civilization. 

Why  geology  should  be  early  studied.  (IX.) 

Childhood  the  period  for  observation. 

Opinions  dissenting  and  assenting. 

The  principle  old  but  generally  ignored. 

Observation  always  accompanied  by  reflection. 

Exclusive  sense-education  not  advocated. 

Disingenuousness  of  comparison  with  savages. 

Accessory  advantages  of  child’s  physical  activity. 

This  is  a pleasure. 

Concrete  things  best  control  attention. 

Mere  motion  an  aid  to  attention. 

Delight  afforded  by  observational  study. 


ANALYSIS. 


’.X 


Delight  in  sense-activity. 

Delight  in  reflection  awakened. 

Delight  in  discovery  of  truth. 

Intellectual  delight  distinguished  from  emotion. 

The  doctrine  that  thought  and  feeling  are  mutually  exclusive. 
Geology  deals  with  common  and  familiar  things. 

It  preoccupies  against  harmful  indulgences. 

It  preserves  balance  of  mind. 

The  alternative  is  early  study  or  total  ignorance. 

General  education  at  each  grade. 

A succession  of  courses  to  be  pursued. 

Its  education  value  compared  with  that  of  other  studies.  (X.) 
Citations  from  Chancellor  Payne. 

Certain  pedagogical  principles. 

Analysis  of  education  values. 

Estimate  of  education  values  of  sundry  studies. 

Examination  of  Chancellor  Payne’s  positions. 

His  pedagogical  principles. 

His  analysis  of  education  values. 

His  estimates  of  education  values  of  sundry  studies. 

The  “culture  trivium  ” discussed. 

Chancellor  Payne’s  criteria  of  high  educational  value. 

The  culture  trivium  examined  in  the  light  of  these  criteria. 
Activities  awakened  by  geography. 

Activities  awakened  by  literature. 

Activities  awakened  by  history. 

Education  values  of  geology. 

Scheme  of  logical  divisions  of  geology. 

Scheme  of  education  values. 

Quantitative  estimates  for  different  stages  of  development. 
Numerical  estimates  for  the  culture  trivium. 

Practical  questions  to  be  solved. 

How  to  urge  geology  into  the  schools.  (XI.) 

Nature  of  influence  exerted  by  the  university. 

Studies  required  for  entrance  and  for  graduation. 

The  schools  teach  only  subjects  preparatory  for  university. 
Unwise  neglect  of  other  subjects. 


X 


ANALYSIS. 


Educational  traditions  unfriendly  to  geology. 

The  reform  pressed  by  convictions  of  teachers. 

Extent  of  popular  geologic  reading. 

Significance  of  certain  popular  organizations. 

Provision  for  the  study  exceedingly  simple. 

Stimuli  to  enthusiasm  even  on  an  alluvial  flat. 

The  stumbling-block  of  the  old  text-book. 

Application  of  the  observational  method.  (XII.) 

Spirit  of  the  observational  method. 

Suggestive  examples  for  teachers. 

A quarry  region. 

A fossiliferous  region. 

A lake-shore  region. 

A prairie  region. 

A drift-covered  region. 

The  expedient  of  an  unqualified  teacher. 

Recapitulation  and  extension  of  principles. 

Principles  and  methods  of  geologic  teaching  in  general.  (XIII.) 
Three  constituents  of  the  subject-matter  of  science. 

Dealing  with  the  observational  constituent. 

Dealing  with  the  generalizations. 

Dealing  with  the  deductive  materials. 

Dogmatic  instruction  not  to  be  discarded. 

Graduation  of  studies  to  mental  development. 

Rudimentary  presentations. 

Presentations  in  the  preparatory  course. 

Presentations  of  collegiate  grade. 

Principles  of  platform  instruction. 

Summary  of  results. 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  1 


i. 

GEOLOGY  IN  TIIE  EDUCATIONAL  STRUGGLE 
FOE  EXISTENCE. 

TN  the  pressure  of  subjects  for  recognition  in  the  edu- 
cational  curriculum,  geology  is  one  which  has  had 
to  struggle  under  great  disadvantages.  Generally,  geology 
is  a study  among  the  least  and  last  appreciated  by  the 
framers  of  educational  opinion,  and  the  controllers  of 
educational  practice.  It  is  the  last  of  the  natural  sciences 
to  be  admitted  into  courses  of  study  ; when  admitted,  it 
is  generally  assigned  to  a stage  in  the  course  at  which  the 
student’s  tastes  are  already  bent  in  other  directions  ; when 
the  time  at  his  disposal  has  been  largely  preoccupied,  and 
he  is  looking  with  some  degree  of  impatience  for  the  con- 
clusion of  his  academic  career  and  his  entrance  upon  the 
arena  of  business  life.  Under  such  circumstances,  geology 
is  apt  to  be  a subject  held  in  low  esteem  by  the  educa- 
tional public  and  the  student  community.  The  control- 
ling authorities  partake  of  the  general  impression  ; and 
from  this  results  a disadvantage  greater  than  all  the  oth- 
ers— one  which  prevents  a study  of  capital  importance 
and  transcendent  interest,  from  conquering,  as  on  its 
merits  it  would,  all  the  disadvantages  of  relative  position 
in  the  curriculum. 


2 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


To  present  this  struggle  under  a concrete  aspect,  let  us 
consider  the  educational  work  in  the  average  university. 
The  student  of  law  feels  that  he  is  preparing  himself  for 
the  acquisition  of  a respectable  livelihood.  He  is  thinking 
of  fees  and  fame  and  the  prizes  of  the  political  arena. 
These  ends,  either  immediate  or  more  remotely  prospect- 
ive, are  ever  before  him.  They  are  living  motives  ; they 
centralize  his  thoughts  and  his  efforts.  He  works  with 
zeal ; his  fellow-students  actuated  by  the  same  motives, 
are  numerous  ; the  department  of  law,  so  respectable  in 
numbers,  must  be  made  respectable  in  outfit ; the  con- 
trolling powers  feel  that  it  is  a department  of  the  uni- 
versity to  be  specially  fostered,  and  it  is  so  fostered.  The 
student  of  medicine,  in  like  manner,  feels  that  he  too  is 
acquiring  the  means  of  material  advancement.  He  is 
thinking  of  fees,  honorariums,  comfortable,  and  then 
luxurious  establishments.  He  is  looking  to  rapidly  made 
fortune  and  middle  life  repose.  The  student  of  pharmacy 
is  a student  of  the  means  of  lucrative  business.  The 
practical  and  profitable  aims  before  him  command  his 
steady  attention  and  sustain  his  unflagging  energies.  The 
dental  college  is  a scene  of  similar  assiduity  and  expecta- 
tion. All  work,  all  hope,  all  desire  centre  in  the  generous 
income  which  educated  and  competent  practice  is  sure 
to  bring  Here,  as  in  other  professional  schools,  an 
external  motive  sustains  industry,  unites  numbers  in  a 
common  interest  and  pushes  it  to  a conspicuous  posi- 
tion and  commands  the  respect  and  care  of  the  ruling 
authorities. 

If  we  turn  to  the  schools  of  civil  and  mechanical  engi- 
neering, we  discover  similar  stimuli  acting  on  minds  per- 
haps more  cultured,  but  therefore  more  susceptible  to 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 


3 


motives  drawn  from  the  probable  successes  of  a future 
career.  The  young  engineer  will  acquire  fame  for  his 
skill.  He  will  come  into  profitable  request ; he  will  plan 
great  and  novel  bridges  ; he  will  carry  railway  lines  in 
seemingly  impossible  places ; great  undertakings  will 
demand  his  services,  and  great  rewards  will  requite  them. 
Else  if  his  ambition  is  moderate,  he  will  superintend 
some  workshop  or  some  great  industrial  establishment,  and 
earn  in  salary  two  or  three  dollars  in  the  same  time  as  his 
late  professor  earns  one.  It  is  understood  without  saying, 
that  the  school,  in  its  diversified  adaptation  to  the  needs 
of  various  seekers  for  means  of  livelihood  is  thronged 
with  devotees.  There  is  no  interest  so  moving  as  a mate- 
rial interest.  It  is  self-sustaining,  unremitting,  and 
demonstrative.  It  commands  admiration  for  its  assiduity 
and  earnestness.  It  commands  respect  for  the  numbers 
which  it  unites  in  a common  aim,  and  for  the  revenue 
which  numbers  bring  to  the  university.  The  outside 
world  appreciates  an  education  which  it  can  call  “practi- 
cal.” It  understands  the  value  of  a department  in  the 
university  which  qualifies  young  men  to  accumulate 
money.  That,  it  thinks  the  chief  end  of  all  education. 
So  the  ontside  public  unite  with  the  inside  authorities  in 
expressing  their  satisfaction  with  the  popularity  of  the 
school  and  the  abundance  of  fees  which  it  brings.  They 
also  unite  in  tendering  it  all  the  support  and  fostering 
care  which  it  needs.  They  supply  it  with  requisite 
equipment  and  an  adequate  corps  of  instructors  and 
assistants.  In  the  abstract,  these  things  are  all  exactly 
as  they  should  be.  Great  good  results  from  bringing  all 
these  professional  and  industrial  schools  to  as  perfect  a 
state  as  possible. 


4 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


If  we  turn  to  the  academic  department  of  the  univer- 
sity, we  obtain  a further  comprehension  of  the  nature  of 
the  environment  of  the  geological  interest.  Here,  con- 
cisely stated,  we  And  pursued  linguistic  studies,  math- 
ematical studies,  philosophical  studies,  literary  studies, 
and  studies  in  physical  and  natural  science.  By  im- 
memorial prescription,  the  linguistic,  mathematic  and 
philosophic  studies  have  enjoyed  the  first  place  in  posi- 
tion and  in  general  esteem.  The  trivium  took  possession 
of  the  university  by  right  of  discovery,  and,  in  its  modern 
guise,  has  asserted  with  haughty  and  militant  exclusive- 
ness, the  righteousness  of  its  appropriation.  As  the 
trivium  supplied  the  means  of  a liberal  education  in  an 
age  when  the  sum  of  non-professional  human  knowledge 
was  a trivium,  so  it  has  always  asserted  that  the  old 
trivium,  with  a seasoning  of  mathematics,  is  the  chief 
essential  of  a liberal  education,  even  since  the  field  of 
human  knowledge  has  become  so  enlarged  that  the 
trivium  and  quadrivium  cover  but  a small  fraction  of  it. 
The  representatives  and  devotees  of  the  traditional 
culture  proclaim  that  there  is  no  other  real  culture ; 
and  since,  in  scholastic  circles,  they  constitute  a large 
majority,  they  succeed  in  creating  a public  sentiment 
accordant  with  their  pretension.  Though  this  public 
sentiment  is  not  the  popular  one,  it  is  imbibed  largely  by 
young  men  seeking  a liberal  education,  and  they  are  in- 
duced to  devote  four  formative  and  determinative  years 
of  their  education  to  the  same  studies  as  occupied  the 
youths  of  the  dark  ages.  The  high  educational  author- 
ities do  not  inform  them  that  real  culture  would  result 
also  from  the  devotion  of  four  preparatory  years  to  the 
modern  languages  and  the  natural  sciences,  and  the 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 


5 


faithful  prosecution  of  a collegiate  quadrennium  inaugur- 
ated by  such  a preparation.  In  all  sincerity  and  earnest- 
ness, therefore,  the  candidate  for  a diploma  of  culture 
places  himself  in  a position  where  the  old  trivium  ap- 
propriates the  lion’s  share  of  his  efforts  during  a period 
of  six  or  eight  years.  The  classical  department  of  the 
university  is  thronged,  consequently,  with  those  who  have 
been  taught,  and  honestly  believe,  that  no  liberal  educa- 
tion is  possible  without  such  offerings  of  time,  labor  and 
money  as  it  exacts.  Of  classical  learning  in  the  abstract 
we  have  nothing  adverse  to  offer.  We  wish  only  to 
make  clear  the  nature  of  the  conflict  for  educational 
existence  which  geology  is  compelled  to  wage. 

Among  the  more  modern  subjects  which  have  gained 
recognition  in  the  collegiate  curriculum,  the  class  which 
may  be  called  •'  ■ literary”  possesses  marked  advantages 
over  the  scientific  — especially  those  studies  in  natural 
science  which  are  not  regarded  as  leading  directly  to 
some  money-making  profession.  Chemistry,  in  its  acces- 
sory relations  to  medicine,  pharmacy  and  metallurgy, 
falls  into  the  fortunate  category  of  “practical”  and 
“productive”  studies,  and  has  little  fight  to  make  in 
securing  appreciation  and  support.  But  the  literary 
group  of  studies  obtain  appreciation  and  support  through 
the  relation  of  their  subject  matter  to  popular  literature. 
They  present  no  array  of  technical  terms  or  conceptions. 
Their  language  is  that  of  the  intelligent  public,  and  their 
themes  are  those  which  beforehand  occupiy  the  thoughts 
of  the  masses  of  intelligent  readers.  Literature  and  his- 
tory, in  their  educational  pursuit,  make  comparatively 
light  demands  on  the  powers  of  abstraction,  induction 
and  reflection.  Their  themes  also  lie  close  to  the  personal 


6 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


experiences  and  interests  of  the  reader.  They  are  nar- 
ratives of  social  life,  dressed  in  pleasing  style,  or  of 
biographical  adventure,  or  of  national  happenings  in 
which  a few  heroic  personalities  constantly  appeal  to  the 
personal  interest  of  the  reader.  The  subject-matter  is 
easily  comprehended,  at  the  same  time  that  it  moves 
the  sensibilities  and  warms  the  imagination.  We  do  not 
affirm  that  literature  is  properly  restricted  to  compositions 
of  a nature  so  nearly  on  the  level  of  popular  sentiment, 
but  we  take  our  literary  critics  at  their  word,  and  speak 
from  the  literary  standard  which  they  set  up,  and  con- 
template that  public  estimate  of  “ literature”  which  their 
verdicts  create  and  sanction.  The  undoubted  facts  being 
such  as  we  have  indicated,  the  predisposition  to  studies 
called  literary,  exerts  upon  the  choice  of  students  a con- 
trolling influence  next  to  that  of  the  fashionable  affecta- 
tions of  classical  culture.  Literary  studies,  therefore, 
possess  the  adventitious  power  of  pushing  their  own  way, 
and  guaranteeing  their  own  prosperity.  Because  they 
awaken  a wide  interest  in  the  scholastic  community,  they 
feel  free  to  make  large  demands  on  the  sources  of  finan- 
cial nurture ; and  the  almoners  of  such  nurture  feel 
justified  in  graduating  their  generosity  to  the  standard  of 
the  popular  sentiment. 

Even  within  the  circuit  of  the  academic  curriculum, 
there  is  often  present  a professional  motive  which  predis- 
poses toward  certain  lines  of  study.  Not  unfrequently 
the  academic  course  is  pursued  with  ultimate  reference 
to  a course  in  law  or  medicine.  With  legal  aims,  linguis- 
tics and  literature — including  as  before,  history  and  civics 
— are  conceived  to  be  more  germane  than  the  natural 
sciences.  With  medical  aims,  Latin  and  chemistry  are 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 


7 


thought  to  be  more  ancillary  than  the  natural  sciences. 
And  among  the  latter,  botany  and  zoology  are  thought 
to  sustain  more  helpful  relations  than  geology.  More  fre- 
quently, the  academic  course  is  pursued  with  the  pur- 
pose of  engaging  temporarily,  or  sometimes  permanently, 
in  the  profession  of  teaching.  The  foremost  question 
before  the  mind  in  such  case  is,  for  what  department 
of  teaching  is  the  demand  most  active?  The  statement 
of  the  question  suggests  the  answer.  The  chief  demand 
is  in  those  studies  which  the  university  pronounces 
pre-requisites  for  entrance  upon  collegiate  courses, 
and  which  by  implication  are  the  fundamentals  of  a 
good  secondary  or  sub-collegiate  education.  In  other 
words,  the  student  who  is  aiming  at  a position  as  teacher, 
will  seek  to  familiarize  himself  with  linguistics,  mathe- 
matics or  literature.  Where  natural  history  and  geology 
are  not  demanded  by  the  university  as  preparatory  for 
college,  the  schools  will  not  offer  preparation  in  them. 
If  they  are  demanded  to  a feeble  or  partial  extent,  the 
schools  will  make  feeble  or  partial  provision  for  them. 
In  the  schools,  therefore,  the  central  effort  is  made  to 
supply  a preparatory  education  which  does  not  embrace 
natural  history  and  geology.  The  student  in  the  univer- 
sity aiming  at  service  in  the  schools,  prompted  by  self- 
interest,  shapes  his  studies  to  the  nature  of  the  demands 
existing.  We  do  not  wish  to  leave  the  suspicion  that  we 
think  it  just  for  the  schools  to  provide  only,  or  chiefly, 
such  sub-collegiate  education  as  opens  the  way  to  college; 
but  our  purpose  is  simply  to  point  out  the  facts,  however 
deplorable  or  however  commendable,  which  place  the 
study  of  geology  at  a disadvantage. 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


When  now,  after  such  a survey  of  the  relation  of  the 
different  fields  of  university  study  to  the  means  of  earn- 
ing a livelihood,  we  grasp  the  whole  situation  at  one 
view,  it  cpiickly  appears  that  geology,  if  pursued  in  col- 
lege or  lower  school,  must  be  studied  from  motives  more 
purely  unprofessional  than  in  the  case  of  nearly  all  other 
studies.  But  the  simple  search  for  knowledge  possesses 
with  most  minds  a less  controlling  influence  than  the 
search  for  means  of  support.  Even  in  the  collegiate  or 
academic  departments  of  the  university,  the  professional 
motives  find  room  for  such  activity  that  geology  and 
natural  history  stand  at  a marked  disadvantage.  When 
we  look  more  closely,  we  learn  that  the  disadvantage  does 
not  really  consist  chiefly  in  numbers  in  attendance  upon 
instruction,  but  in  the  lack  of  adequate  and  equal  mate- 
rial sustenance  afforded  by  the  government  of  the  uni- 
versity. The  discrimination  against  these  studies  is 
prompted  by  three  motives:  1st.  The  scholastic  authori- 

ties entertain  the  traditional  conceptions  of  the  require- 
ments for  a liberal  education,  and  are  not  sufficiently 
informed  in  the  sciences  to  admit  that  they  are  equal 
means  of  culture;  and,  as  the  outcome  of  their  pre- 
possessions and  their  ignorance,  succeed  in  turning  the 
revenues  of  the  university  into  the  channels  which 
they  approve.  2d.  The  financial  control  of  the  uni- 
versity determines  its  policy  partly  by  the  recommenda- 
tions of  the  scholastic  authorities,  and  partly  by  the 
amount  which  a department  of  study  is  able  to  return 
in  the  shape  of  fees  which  students  with  professional 
aims  feel  willing  to  pay.  3d.  The  supreme  govern- 
ment of  the  university  participates  in  the  popular  opin- 
ion that  those  departments  and  those  studies  are  most 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE.  9 

worthy  of  support  which  sustain  the  most  immediate 
relations  to  the  production  of  wealth. 

The  final  outcome  of  the  conflict  waged  by  geology  for 
standing  in  the  university,  assumes  form  somewhat  as 
follows  : The  smallest  possible  allowance  of  means  is 

granted  for  carrying  on  the  work  of  instruction  and  in- 
vestigation. Other  departments  of  instruction  may  be 
allowed  numerous  assistants,  while  that  of  geology,  with 
similar  necessities,  has  none  or  almost  none — even  for 
simple  manual  work.  Other  departments  secure  supplies 
of  the  means  of  illustration  and  investigation,  while 
geology  may  plead  for  years  in  vain  for  some  small  pur- 
chase indispensable  for  work  according  to  modern  methods. 
Even  in  the  ostensibly,  and  it  might  be  added  ostenta- 
tiously, ecpial  distribution  of  appropriations  for  books, 
geology  is  placed  at  a double  disadvantage.  First,  scien- 
tific works  if  illustrated,  as  they  are  apt  to  be,  belong  to  a 
relatively  costly  class  ; so  that  a given  allowance  to  geology 
secures  less  literature  on  the  subject  than  the  same  allow- 
ance to  history,  English  or  Greek.  The  same  may  of 
course  be  said  of  zoology  and  botany.  Second,  of  the 
relatively  large  allowance  usually  assigned  for  miscella- 
neous books,  a very  large  proportion  of  those  purchased 
might  well  fall  to  the  charge  of  the  literary  and  philo- 
sophic departments.  They  are  largely  accessory  to  those 
departments,  while  the  taint  of  natural  history  or  geology 
is  enough  usually,  to  consign  a book  to  the  catalogue  of 
those  chargeable  to  the  special  funds  for  those  subjects. 

I have  drawn  a picture  of  one  of  the  most  strongly 
colored  cases.  It  is  a case  where  scientific  interests  have 
no  independent  or  exclusive  endowment,  or  school,  or 
standing  : where  every  provision  and  regulation  is  at  the 


10 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


dictation  of  the  literary  interests ; where  the  executive 
and  consultative  authorities  are  identified  with  those 
interests  ; and  the  highest  external  control  seeks  only  the 
recommendations  which  emanate  from  a single  source. 
These  various  conditions  may  not  be  found  united  in  one 
institution.  There  may  exist,  assuredly,  collegiate  and 
university  institutions  in  which  geology  enjoys  a better 
standing.  There  are  institutions  whose  founding  and 
expansion  are  as  recent  as  the  very  modern  expansion  of 
the  natural  sciences,  and  where  these  sciences  were  from 
the  beginning  granted  a relative  position  worthy  of  their 
claims.  There  are  institutions  where  the  executive  and 
advisory  influences  are  in  sympathy  with  the  natural 
sciences  and  with  the  spirit  of  the  age.  We  have  no 
doubt  that  the  number  of  such  institutions  will  steadily 
increase. 

My  object  in  offering  these  statements  for  record  is 
twofold.  I desire  to  call  the  attention  of  geologists  and 
other  scientific  gentlemen  to  the  actual  state  of  the  facts. 
The  geological  instructor  and  investigator  is  apt  be  so 
deeply  absorbed  in  his  efforts  to  advance  and  diffuse  the 
knowledge  of  natural  truth  that  he  is  scarcely  conscious 
of  the  enormous  inequalities  of  position  in  which  he 
is  placed.  A general  consensus  of  demands  for  rights  will 
be  more  likely  to  improve  the  situation  than  a sweet- 
tempered  and  silent  acquiescence  in  wrongs.  My  second 
object  is  to  arrest  the  attention  of  all  those  whose  common 
influence  or  authority  has  imposed  upon  geology  the  dis- 
abilities under  which  it  suffers  in  some  of  our  collegiate 
institutions.  In  doing  this,  I desire  to  protest  not  only 
against  the  unjust  estimate  which  traditional  opinion 
places  on  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  particular  on  biology 


STRUGGLE  FOR  EXISTENCE. 


11 


and  geology,  but  also  and  emphatically  against  the  prin- 
ciple that  those  departments  are  to  he  most  fostered  which 
bring  most  revenue  to  the  college  or  university,  and  are 
held  in  highest  popular  esteem.  For  the  very  reason  that 
some  studies  and  disciplines  look  toward  professional  and 
money»getting  ends,  they  are  the  better  able  to  take  care 
of  themselves.  If  any  study  or  department  has  the  right 
to  expect  special  favor  and  special  sustenance,  it  is  a study 
or  department  which  is  purely  cultural,  occupying  a place 
quite  above  the  level  of  common  appreciation. 

I have  written  thus  far  as  if  acquiescing  in  the  arro- 
gant estimate  which  consigns  geology  to  an  inferior  and 
unessential  place  in  a liberal  education,  and  fails  to  recog- 
nize it  as  potent  factor  in  modern  civilization.  That  it  is 
such  a factor,  however,  is  known  to  the  intelligent  public, 
and  it  is  not  my  purpose  here  to  demonstrate  it.  Geol- 
ogy, in  truth,  if  placed  on  the  basis  of  usefulness  to  man, 
would  hold  a position  in  educational  processes  not  infe- 
rior to  that  of  literature  and  languages.  In  the  esteem 
of  the  intelligent  public  it  is  making  rapid  and  constant 
advance.  The  dissatisfaction  of  this  public  with  the 
position  of  biology  and  geology  in  the  schools  is  plainly 
expressed  in  such  movements  as  that  of  the  “Agassiz 
Association  ” witli  its  seven  thousand  members,  and 
“ Chatauqua  Scientific  Circle  ” with  its  fifty  or  sixty 
thousand  readers  and  students.  I feel  sure  that  public 
opinion  will  ultimately  compel  our  moss-grown,  conserva- 
tive educators  to  admit  geology  in  some  of  its  aspects  into 
the  secondary,  and  even  the  primary  schools,  and  will 
revolutionize  the  collegiate  control  which  persists  in  con- 
signing geology  to  an  insignificant  position.  This  result, 
however,  will  be  reached  through  instrumentalities  ; and 


12 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


I have  hoped  such  an  undisguised  statement  as  here  made 
might  contribute  something  to  the  much  needed  reform. 

I beg  to  disclaim  all  hostility  to  the  true  interests  of 
any  department  of  learning ; for  there  is  no  learning  in 
which  I do  not  feel  deep  concern.  I desire  only  to  rebuke 
the  assumption  of  some  forms  of  traditional  learning,  and 
protest  against  a policy  in  university  control  which  sanc- 
tions their  arrogance  and  helps  them  to  rob  certain  other 
departments  of  their  equitable  standing  and  material 
support. 


II. 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 


T E may  be  interested  in  a further  presentation  of 


facts  in  the  case.  This  will  enable  us  to  understand 
and  appreciate  the  nature  of  the  struggle  in  which  geol- 
ogy is  engaged  in  schools  of  a more  popular  grade.  Having 
occasion  some  months  since,  to  ascertain  to  what  extent 
geology  is  pursued  in  the  high  schools  of  Michigan,  I 
addressed  a circular  of  inquiry  to  representatives  of  one 
hundred  and  forty-seven  schools,  in  places  having  a 
population  of  one  thousand  or  more.  Information  was 
sought  also,  as  to  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction  received 
by  teacher  and  pupils  in  schools  where  the  subject  was 
pursued ; and  in  those  where  it  was  not  pursued,  some 
statement  of  the  reason  for  it.  Opinions  were  also 
solicited  in  reference  to  the  desirability  of  admitting 
geology  in  any  form  into  the  lower  schools. 

The  respondents  were  almost  unanimous  in  the  ex- 
pression of  their  personal  interest  in  the  subject  — 
several  of  them  quite  enthusiastic.  They  were  equally 
unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  it  ought  to  be  taught  in 
the  high  schools,  and  might  be  commenced  in  schools  of 
a very  elementary  grade.  But  most  of  them  saw  other 
subjects  in  possession  of  the  field,  and  did  not  discover 
any  opportunity  for  the  introduction  of  geology,  though 
experience  had  proved  it  to  be  interesting  to  both  teacher 
and  pupil.  Some  of  these  were  attempting  the  subject 
in  the  way  of  “object  lessons"  and  general  exercises,  and 


13 


14 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


as  accessory  to  geography  and  physical  geography.  Sev- 
eral expressed  a desire  to  introduce  geology  in  the  form 
of  “ supplementary  reading.’’ 

It  also  became  apparent  that  the  study  of  geology  has 
materially  diminished  within  a few  years.  The  study 
has  recently  been  thrown  out  of  nine  of  the  schools.  In 
five  of  these,  the  step  has  been  taken,  as  they  state,  to 
enable  them  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  university  for 
preparation  in  other  subjects.  Why  thrown  out  in  the 
four  other  cases  is  not  stated.  One  esteemed  and  veteran 
superintendent  almost  bitterly  complained  that  “for 
twenty  years,  more  or  less,  we  have  been  stretching  our- 
selves in  a vain  endeavor  to  keep  pace  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  university.  Many  of  us  begin  to  see  the 
necessity  of  unloading.”  It  is  apparent  that  the  attitude 
of  the  university  toward  geology  has  operated  disparag- 
ingly among  all  the  leading  schools  of  the  state  ; though 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  any  deliberate  purpose  to 
produce  such  a result  has  been  entertained  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  university. 

To  be  more  specific,  it  appeared  that  geology  was 
taught  in  thirty-seven  per  cent,  of  all  the  schools  respond- 
ing to  the  circular,  and  was  not  taught  in  sixty-four  per 
cent.  It  had  recently  been  dropped  out  of  twelve  and  a 
half  per  cent,  of  those  responding,  which  was  one-fifth 
of  the  whole  number  of  those  not  teaching  geology.  In 
assigning  reasons  for  not  including  geology  in  the  cur- 
riculum, lack  of  space  was  alleged  by  thirty-six  per  cent. ; 
lack  of  competent  teachers  by  fourteen  per  cent. ; lack  of 
proper  text-book,  by  three  per  cent.;  lack  of  requisite 
facilities,  by  one  per  cent.;  insufficient  advancement  of 
pupils,  by  eight  per  cent.;  uninteresting  nature  of  the 


GEOLOGY  IX  THE  SCHOOLS. 


15 


study,  by  one  per  cent.;  the  existence  of  other  studies 
more  useful  and  more  practicable  to  teach,  by  seven  per 
cent. ; not  required  by  the  university,  by  seven  per  cent., 
and  by  seven  per  cent.,  no  reason  was  known. 

In  reference  to  the  degree  of  satisfaction  obtained  by 
those  who  were  teaching,  or  had  taught  geology,  it  was 
reported  to  have  been  thoroughly  enjoyed  by  twenty-six 
per  cent,  of  all  those  reporting,  which  was  sixty-one  per 
cent,  of  all  those  who  were  teaching  or  had  taught 
geology.  On  the  contrary,  thirty-one  per  cent,  of  the 
latter  class  stated  that  portions  of  the  subject  only  were 
enjoyed  ; while  three  per  cent,  of  the  same  confessed  that 
the  subject  had  been  pursued  without  satisfaction. 

It  will  give  a more  realistic  character  to  this  represen- 
tation of  geology  in  the  schools  of  Michigan — or  rather  out 
of  them — if  I cite  some  of  the  particular  replies  received  in 
answer  to  the  question  why  geology  is  not  taught.  Adrian 
replies  — apologetically,  for  having  the  subject  only 
“ during  part  of  one  term/’ — “More  space  is  not  given 
because  of  prominence  given  to  other  studies.”  The 
representative  of  Bay  City  replies  : “ 1.  I have  to  teach 

the  sciences,  and  my  training  has  been  more  in  the  organic 
than  the  inorganic  sciences.  2.  We  can  not  teach  geology, 
zoology  and  astronomy,  and  as  I can  best  teach  zoology, 
and  we  have  a specialist  in  astronomy,  we  teach  those  two 
subjects.  3.  I feel  that  zoology  has  more  training  value 
than  geology,  as  we  would  necessarily  have  to  teach  the 
subject  in  a high  school.  4.  In  Bay  City  there  is  little 
to  enthuse  one  in  the  subject  of  geology,  except  our  salt 
formations,  while  zoology  has  much  to  make  it  full  of 
life.”  Cadillac  replies  : “ No  formal  study  is  made.  We 
spend  considerable  time  in  physical  geography,  and  bring 


16 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


in  the  subject  to  some  extent  there.”  “ Lack  of  time  ” is 
given  as  the  reason  for  omitting  geology.  Caro  replies  : 
“ The  only  reason  for  excluding  it  is  that  with  the  services 
of  so  few  teachers,  we  have  not  time  for  it.  Four  years 
ago,  we  lengthened  the  time  for  the  common  branches, 
hence  had  to  exclude  some  of  the  sciences.”  Chase  replies  : 
“ Pupils  have  never  been  sufficiently  advanced  to  study  it 
thoroughly.”  It  is  added,  however,  that  efforts  are  making 
to  introduce  the  subject.  Chelsea,  also,  is  just  introduc- 
ing geology.  At  Coldwater,  the  subject  was  formerly 
taught.  My  correspondent  says : “ Shortly  after  our 

connection  with  the  university,  in  rearranging  the  courses 
of  study,  it  was  found  necessary  to  drop  it,  as  well  as  some 
other  studies,  in  order  to  meet  the  demands  of  that  insti- 
tution.” At  Decatur,  “ the  teaching  force  is  too  limited.” 
East  Saginaw  states  : “Our  course  of  study  was  greatly 

crowded.  * * Geology  and  one  or  two  other  branches  were 
omitted.”  East  Tawas  reports  that  “ we  cannot  find  time 
for  that  study,”  but  they  hope  to  introduce  it  next  year. 
Eaton  Rapids  complains  of  insufficient  teaching  force. 
Essexville  “cannot  find  room  for  it.”  Evart  says  the 
subject  has  been  taught,  “ but  is  not  taught  now.”  At 
Fenton  there  are  not  enough  teachers,  and  “the  course  of 
study  is  not  so  extended  as  to  require  it.”  Flint  thinks 
the  place  of  geology  is  “rather  in  the  college  than  in  the 
grammar  or  high  schools.”  Grand  Haven  says  : “Why 

the  committee  who  rearranged  the  course  of  study  threw 
it  out  and  substituted  something  else  I am  unable  to  tell 
you.  I would  like  very  much  to  have  it  in  my  course  of 
study,  but  do  not  see  how  it  can  be  given  as  an  additional 
study,  for  our  pupils  have  already  all  they  can  do.” 
Hastings  has  “not  a sufficient  number  of  teachers.”  At 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 


17 


Hillsdale,  geology  is  studied  “ only  in  connection  with 
geography/’  but  they  “are  endeavoring  to  take  up  the 
study  next  year.”  Howard  City  pleads  “lack  of  room 
and  time,”  though  they  “ have  an  eleven  years’  course  and 
five  teachers.”  Howell  keeps  geology  out  from  “lack  of 
time.”  At  Imlay  City,  there  are  “but  eleven  grades  and 
a crowded  school,  so  that  heretofore, time  has  been  limited.” 
Iron  Mountain  is  only  recently  “organized  as  a high 
school.”  Jackson  gives  no  reason  for  exclusion  of  geol- 
ogy. Kalamazoo  pleads  “lack  of  space  in  the  high  school 
course  of  study,  and  difficulty  in  securing  teachers  compe- 
tent and  in  sympathy.”  “Geology  was  atone  time  in  the 
course.”  Manchester  replies  : “ Geology  was  thrown  out.” 
“The  reason  I presume  to  be  its  minor  importance  to 
physics  and  chemistry.”  At  Manistee  the  neglect  of  the 
subject  is  attributed  “chiefly  to  the  difficulty  of  securing 
good  instruction.”  The  respondent  at  Marine  City  says  : 
“ Geology  was  in  the  course  some  years  ago,  but  was 
thrown  out  for  some  reason  unknown  to  me,  before  I 
came  here.”  The  respondent  at  Marshall  writes  : “ I do 
not  see  how  it  could  be  introduced  without  throwing  out 
other  work  also  necessary  and  important,  as  all  of  our 
pupils  are  doing  hard  work  to  keep  up  now  with  the 
requirements  of  the  ordinary  branches.”  “If  this  study 
could  replace  some  of  the  arithmetic  work  in  the  fourth 
through  the  sixth  grades,  I would  like  it.”  Michigamme 
gives  no  reason.  Milford  replies  : “ The  course  is  already 
quite  full.”  Morenci  alleges  “want  of  time  and  space  in 
the  school  course,”  and  adds  : “ Most  of  the  text-books 

on  the  subject  are  too  difficult  for  pupils  in  schools  of  this 
grade.”  From  Mount  Clemens  I learn  : “ The  branch 

was  taught  in  the  high  school  until  two  years  ago,  when 


a 


18 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


it  was  rejected  from  the  course  and  astronomy  was  sub- 
stituted. The  reason  of  the  change  was,  that  the  study 
had  not  proved  interesting  to  either  teacher  or  pupil ; and 
it  seemed  to  those  having  the  matter  in  charge  that  to 
make  it  so,  the  teacher  must  have  had  special  preparation 
for  the  work/’  Mount  Pleasant  does  not  consider  the 
subject  “as  important  as  those  already  included  in  the 
curriculum.”  Nevertheless,  it  is  expected  to  be  introduced 
next  year.  Muskegon  says  : “ Our  high  school  has  never 
been  shaped  in  its  course  of  study,  for  college  or  scientific 
work.  School  Boards  have  always  aimed  to  meet  the 
great  lower  wants  of  the  great  mass  of  pupils.”  Nashville 
says  : “ Our  school  has  only  recently  been  graded,  and  is 

backward.”  My  correspondent  at  Newaygo  thinks  it 
impracticable  to  make  excursions ; and,  though  he  is 
teaching  from  a book,  he  could  not  teach  by  means  of 
specimens  collected,  “without  hiring  an  experienced  geol- 
ogist to  go  along  and  untangle  things  — there  is  such  an 
infinite  variety  of  geological  formations.  From  my  obser- 
vations, not  taken  at  random,  I assure  you,  it  is  my  delib- 
erate opinion  that  at  least  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  teachers 
of  the  state  are  teaching  the  book,  and  not  the  science  of 
geology.”  Otsego  assigns  “lack  of  space  in  the  curri- 
culum,” and  Portland  “lack  of  time” — which  means  the 
same  thing.  From  Quincy  I learn  they  “cannot  teach 
everything”  “with  their  limited  time  and  number  of 
teachers,”  and  therefore  do  not  teach  geology.  Romeo 
also  replies  : “ We  are  not  so  circumstanced  as  to  teach  all 
the  sciences,  and  the  Board  think  that  chemistry,  botany, 
physiology  and  natural  philosophy  can  be  taught  to  better 
advantage  and  with  more  profit  to  the  pupils.”  From  the 
lakeside  schools  of  Muskegon  (Ryerson),  I learn  that  “ the 


GEOLOGY  IK  THE  SCHOOLS. 


19 


schools  are  graded  up  to  and  including  the  eighth  grade, 
and  in  time,  high  school  work  will  be  done.”  Similarly, 
I learn  that  in  Saint  Ignace,  “all  the  usual  studies  in 
higher  grades  have  not  yet  been  added.”  At  Saint  Louis, 
geology  is  excluded  “from  want  of  proper  text-book, 
want  of  knowledge  on  the  part  of  teachers,  and  want  of 
time.”  My  respondent  from  Tecumseh  writes  : “I  know 
of  no  special  reason  why  geology  is  excluded.  Our  courses 
of  study  were  arranged  with  reference  to  requirements  for 
admission  to  the  university  ; perhaps  that  fact  may  account 
for  the  omission.  There  seems  to  be  a tendency  in  most 
schools  just  now,  to  increase  the  time  spent  in  general 
English  or  masterpiece  study.  This  may  in  some  cases 
lessen  the  time  devoted  to  science  generally ; but  I see  no 
reason  why  the  ban  should  be  pronounced  against  geology 
alone.”  Fenton  responds  only,  “two  hundred  and 
eighty  pupils  for  three  teachers  [are]  too  much.”  From 
Ypsilanti,  the  response  informs  me  : “ We  are  not  dealing 
with  geology  from  the  simple  fact  that  it  has  been  made 
optional  with  other  subjects  in  the  university  requirements. 
These  other  subjects  we  can  obtain  facilities  for  teaching. 
We  have  no  facilities  for  teaching  geology.”  “This  tells 
the  whole  story.  Personally,  we  have  no  preferences.  We 
are  willing  to  admit,  for  the  sake  of  the  argument,  that  as 
far  as  mental  discipline  is  concerned,  geology  is  as  valuable 
as  mathematics  ; but  we  have  not  time  in  the  schools  for 
mathematics  and  geology.  Mathematics  was  in  ; geology 
must  stay  out.” 

In  reference  to  the  propriety  of  admitting  geology  in 
primary  and  grammar  departments,  a very  strong  affirma- 
tive sentiment  was  developed.  This  was  expressed  by 
many  teachers  whose  courses  of  study  do  not  embrace 


20 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


geology.  This  sentiment  is  in  curious  contrast  with  the 
opinion  that  geology  belongs  only  to  the  high  school  or 
college.  Some  of  the  statements  on  this  point  possess 
interest  in  this  connection.  Adrian  favors  the  policy  of 
introducing  geology  in  the  lower  schools,  and  so  does 
Battle  Creek.  Bay  City  thinks  it  might  be  introduced  in 
the  form  of  “supplementary  reading” — that  is,  mere 
text-book  work.  Buchanan  thinks  “there  is  no  reason  for 
excluding  it  in  its  simplest  form.”  Cadillac  gives  assent. 
Caro  does  not  favor  it.  Chase  says:  “ I do  most  em- 
phatically.” Teachers  there  are  already  doing  a good 
deal  indirectly  “by  means  of  object  lessons.”  Cold- 
water  replies:  “1  do;  for  this  reason:  pupils  not  able  to 
enter  college  have  very  limited  opportunities  for  gaining 
information  in  the  natural  sciences.  Many  students 
have  natural  inclination  to  this  line  of  work,  and  have 
little  opportunity  for  developing  it.  In  the  arrangement 
of  courses  of  study,  the  many  must  suffer  for  the  few 
who  enter  college.”  This  fact  seems  almost  universally 
overlooked.  Chesaning,  in  answer  to  the  question,  says: 
“Yes,  I do,”  and  Decatur  says,  “I  do  most  emphati- 
cally.” From  East  Saginaw  comes  the  response:  “Ido 
value  very  highly  the  study  of  geology,  and  I would 
gladly  see  it  introduced”  in  the  lower  schools.  East 
Tawas  responds:  “I  think  the  introduction  of  the  study 
into  the  lower  departments  is  possible  and  practicable.” 
Eaton  Rapids  expresses  the  same  sentiment,  and  adds, 
“ It  is  a subject  that  has  always  interested  me  deeply, 
and  I should  be  pleased  to  see  it  introduced  into  every 
school  in  the  state.”  Essexville  is  of  like  mind.  Flint 
thinks  the  subject  belongs  only  in  college.  Grand  Rapids 
thinks  it  “ an  excellent  idea,”  but  fears  teachers  would  not 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  SCHOOLS. 


21 


be  found  competent.  Greenville  thinks  the  only  objec- 
tion is  “crowded  courses  in  the  primaries  and  inter- 
mediates,” and  adds:  “Personally,  I should  say  that 
some  of  the  simpler  facts  in  geology  might  be  taught  to 
the  exclusion  of  so  much  geography,  with  profit.”  Prom 
Hastings  I hear:  “We  think  it  would  improve  our  course 
of  study.”  Howard  City  says:  “ Yes,  connecting  it  with 
geography  in  lower  grades.”  Howell  also  says  “Yes.” 
Imlay  City  responds:  “We  would  favor  a course  in 

geology,  and  have  been  looking  for  some  primary  text- 
book on  the  subject.”  Iron  Mountain  says:  “ Yes, 

decidedly,”  and  Ishpeming  and  Lake  Linden  say  “Yes.” 
Jackson  says  “ Yes,”  with  double  emphasis.  Lansing 
“does  not  favor  the  admission  of  geology  into  our  schools 
below  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  grade  in  the  high  school,” 
unless  the  course  is  revolutionized — “as  it  ought  to  be.” 
Manchester  says:  “It  depends  upon  whether  it  is  neces- 
sary to  the  course  at  Ann  Arbor,”  and  adds:  “I  deem  it 
to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  ennobling  of  the 
sciences.”  Manistee  returns  an  affirmative  response,  and 
Marine  City,  Mason  and  Milford  are  of  the  same  opinion. 
Morenci  declares:  “ I should  most  cheerfully  welcome  a 
text-book  that  might  be  used  in  the  lower  grades.” 
Mount  Pleasant  “would  not  favor  the  use  of  a text-book 
on  geology  below  the  high  school,”  but  thinks  “ much 
might  be  done  in  primary  grades  by  object  lessons  or 
other  general  exercises.  Then  it  seems  to  me  that  if  a 
short  series  of  easy,  well  chosen  lessons  could  be  obtained, 
they  would  form  most  interesting  and  valuable  material 
for  supplementary  reading  in  the  intermediate  depart- 
ment.” Nashville  also,  returns,  “Yes,  as  supplementary 
reading,  at  least.”  Newaygo  thinks  it  “would  not  be 


22 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


wise,  unless  the  teachers  themselves  could  be  in  some 
way  prepared  to  do  the  work  in  an  interesting  and 
scientific  manner.”  New  Baltimore  thinks  favorably, 
and  Northville  replies:  “It  would  interest  them,  and  be 
of  value  in  lower  grades,”  but  as  the  schools  are  organ- 
ized, the  time  is  insufficient.  Oscoda  says:  “Yes,  if  one 
could  find  a suitable  book  that  would  not  make  skeptics 
of  our  children.  As  yet  I know  of  none.”  Ovid  says,  “I 
do  "without  reservation,  and  Paw  Paw  replies:  “Most 
emphatically  I do.”  In  Pontiac  this  sentiment  is  uttered: 
“ I favor  it.  If  properly  taught,  good  would  come  from  it. 
Have  it  alternate  with  something  else  as  a general  exer- 
cise. There  are  already  enough  regular  studies  in  the 
course.  Let  the  teacher  teach  the  subject,  rather  than 
hear  recitations.”  The  sentiment  entertained  in  Port 
Huron  is  kindred:  “ I think  the  simplest  and  commonest 
facts  should  be  given  to  pupils  from  the  lowest  grade  up. 
They  could  be  given  in  connection  with  geography.” 
Portland  and  Quincy  give  affirmative  responses,  and 
Eomeo  replies:  “We  should  be  glad  to  have  it  intro- 
duced were  there  not  so  many  other  things  that  are 
needed  more.”  Saint  Ignace  joins  the  majority,  and  Sagi- 
naw amplifies  assent  as  follows:  “ I do  favor  its  admission 
into  the  lower  grades,  and  into  the  lowest.  It  may  be 
made  educative  and  interesting  from  the  kindergarten 
up.”  Saint  Louis  and  Stanton  also  assent,  and  the  latter 
adds:  “Paul  Bert’s  Introductory  Steps,  for  instance.” 
Sturgis  reports  “Yes.”  Tecumseh  adds:  “I  never  knew 
any  pupil  who  had  pursued  the  study  to  regret  having 
done  so,  and  see  no  reason  why  it  might  not  be  made 
both  interesting  and  instructive  to  young  pupils.” 
Three  Kivers  declares:  “I  certainly  favor  the  study  of 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  SCHOOLS.  23 

geology  in  high  schools,  but  my  experience  with  primary 
schools  leads  me  to  think  they  have  enough  to  fully 
occupy  their  time  without  introducing  geology.”  From 
Trenton  comes  the  simple  response,  “Yes.”  Vassar 
replies:  “I  should  favor  geology  as  low  down  as  the 
sixth  grade — to  be  taught  orally,  by  excursions,  etc.  In 
ninth  grade,  I should  like  a book  corresponding  to 
Wood’s  Object  Lessons  or  Gray’s  How  Plants  Grow,  in 
botany — and  for  eleventh  or  twelfth  grade,  something- 
more  complete  or  systematic.”  White  Pigeon  says:  “It 
would  no  doubt  be  of  value  in  lower  grades.” 

The  foregoing  responses  come  from  the  most  intelligent 
and,  generally,  most  experienced  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  Michigan.  I have  not  asked  their  consent  to  make 
the  replies  public,  and  I originally  had  no  intention  to 
publish  them.  But  the  views  expressed  may  be  regarded 
as  representing  the  teachers  of  Michigan  and  the  con- 
tiguous states.  As  such  they  possess  value  and  afford 
important  suggestions.  I trust,  therefore,  as  I have 
withheld  names,  that  every  one  quoted  will  pardon  the 
liberty  for  the  sake  of  the  public  good. 

The  interests  of  education,  not  less  than  the  interests 
of  geology,  require  that  some  response  be  made  to  these 
expressions.  What  I desire  to  say  will  bring  me  to  the 
most  practical  portion  of  the  discussion  here  undertaken ; 
and  before  I make  my  plea  for  the  wider  admission  of 
geology  in  the  schools,  it  will  be  well  to  set  forth  my  con- 
ception of  the  claims  of  the  science  as  a means  and 
material  of  education. 

Why  do  we  educate  ? “ To  impart  mental  discipline,” 

says  one.  “ To  impart  a fund  of  useful  knowledge,” 
says  another.  If,  as  the  educational  theorist  maintains, 


24 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


education  ought  to  aim  solely  at  culture,  what  is  the 
value  of  culture  acquired,  unless  by  its  exercise,  some 
valuable  results  are  attained.  If  that  is  the  end,  then  even 
the  cultural  aim  reaches  no  accomplishment  short  of  use- 
fulness. If,  as  the  mass  of  people  believe,  education 
ought  to  aim  solely  at  the  acquisition  of  useful  knowledge, 
then,  manifestly,  the  mental  exercises  involved  in  the 
acquisition,  must  subject  the  powers  to  a process  of  cul- 
ture. So,  if  we  aim  exclusively  at  culture,  utility  is  the 
real  end ; and  this  may  consist  of  useful  knowledge,  or 
an  improved  power  to  employ  knowledge  when  acquired, 
or  an  elevation  of  life  and  character.  And  if  we  aim  exclu- 
sively at  useful  knowledge,  we  cannot  avoid  the  cultural 
result,  and  all  which  it  involves.  The  true  purpose  of 
education  is  the  acquisition  of  both  culture  and  useful 
knowledge.  I shall  attempt  to  show  that  both  these  ends 
are  attained  in  the  study  of  geology. 


III. 


WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  CULTURE  ? 

IT  is  considered  educational  orthodoxy  to  maintain  that 
education,  as  the  term  itself  implies,  consists  in  such 
training  of  the  human  powers — but  more  especially  the 
intellectual  faculties — as  will  make  them  of  greatest  ser- 
vice to  their  possessor.  If  this  expression  means  exclu- 
sively culture,  and  does  not  involve  the  acquisition  of 
useful  knowledge,  it  should  at  least  be  said  that  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge  is  one  of  the  incidents  of  culture, 
and  hence  culture  ought  to  be  so  sought  as  to  involve  the 
attainment  of  useful  knowledge.  For  the  present,  how- 
ever, I wish  to  contemplate  the  purely  cultural  aspect 
of  education,  with  a view  to  the  subsequent  inquiry 
how  geological  studies  stand  related  to  processes  of  pure 
culture. 

In  order  that  one’s  faculties  may  become  most  serviceable, 
they  must  acquire  as  far  as  possible,  alertness,  effective- 
ness and  readiness.  In  other  words,  they  must  act  with 
facility  and  rapidity ; they  must  accomplish  a large 
volume  of  their  appropriate  results  in  a given  time,  and 
must  be  ever  ready  to  enter  into  action.  They  must  be 
like  a team  which  is  quick,  strong,  and  in  harness. 

What  in  detail,  do  educators  contemplate  when  they 
speak  of  culture  ? What  are  the  several  powers  whose 
alertness,  effectiveness  and  readiness  are  best  promoted 
by  best  culture?  This  is  equivalent  to  asking  what  are 
the  powers  by  whose  most  perfect  activity  we  achieve 


as 


26 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


most  successfully  the  work  allotted  to  us?  The  obyious 
answer  is,  all  the  powers  by  which  a human  agent  seeks 
his  ends  — powers  physical,  powers  intellectual  and 
powers  ethical.  Let  us  restrict  the  inquiry,  for  the 
time  being,  to  the  powers  intellectual.  We  will  con- 
template then,  for  the  present,  pure  intellectual  culture  ; 
and  we  will  employ  the  term  in  its  proper  or  psychological 
meaning. 

The  term  culture  is  much  employed  by  a class  of 
writers  and  speakers  who  extol  lines  of  study  demanding 
the  exercise  especially  of  verbal  memory,  and  the  power 
of  comparison  and  analysis.  The  verbal  memory  is  the 
faculty  of  retaining  and  recalling  mere  words.  It  is  the 
means  of  acquiring  names  and  of  speaking  them  on 
occasion.  It  fixes  phrases  and  quotations,  and  puts  us 
in  possession  of  them.  It  seizes  on  the  words  and  forms 
of  a foreign  language,  and  makes  them  permanently 
ours.  It  is  the  spring  of  the  faculty  of  verbal  utterance  ; 
it  confers  effective  power  of  expression.  Its  function 
extends  to  the  retention  of  dates  and  other  numerical 
expressions.  Self-evidently,  the  verbal  memory  is  an 
important  means  in  the  acquisition  and  communication  of 
all  knowledge,  and  the  attainment  of  all  ends  to  which 
knowledge  contributes.  To  add  alertness,  effectiveness 
and  readiness  to  the  verbal  memory  is  one  important 
factor  in  intellectual  culture. 

Verbal  memory,  however,  appears  to  be  psychologically 
analogous  to  the  memory  or  reproduction  of  sounds  and 
sights  in  general ; and  thus,  for  our  purpose,  the  general 
power  of  reproducing  percepts  may  be  designated  the 
sense-memory.  This  power  in  its  further  exercise,  is  that 
by  which  we  recall  the  features  of  individuals,  and  attain 


WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  CULTURE  ? 


27 


an  extensive  acquaintance.  It  preserves  what  we  have 
seen  in  the  forms  of  matter  in  general  — forms  of  animals, 
plants,  scenery,  architecture.  Readiness  of  recognition  is 
conferred  by  it,  and  therefore,  power  of  detail  in  descrip- 
tions. It  is  the  chief  faculty  of  story-telling  — so  far  as 
simple  utterance  is  concerned.  Facility  in  sense-repro- 
ductions confers  many  advantages ; and  it  is  often  the 
means  of  attaining  successes  which  a superior  grade  of 
reflective  intelligence  fails  to  win.  Aside  from  the  store 
of  facts  which  it  sometimes  holds  at  the  service  of  the 
other  powers,  it  is  the  most  available  instrument  for  what 
we  call  popularity.  Though  the  vice  of  the  excessive 
exercise  of  sense-memory  may  be  garrulousness,  fecundity 
of  meaningless  details,  the  substitution  of  anecdote  for 
thought,  and  general  shallowness,  yet  it  is  quite  manifest 
that  the  fullest  exercise  of  the  sense-memory  can  only  be 
productive  of  advantages,  if  the  judgment  and  other 
intellectual  powers  are  brought  into  symmetrical  and 
restraining  development.  The  whole  field  of  the  sense- 
memory  deserves  careful  exercise  and  strengthening,  and 
this  work  must  be  one  of  the  useful  and  legitimate 
elements  of  broad  culture. 

Embraced  in  the  order  of  culture  first  referred  to  is 
the  exercise  of  the  power  of  comparison  and  judgment. 
Without  affirming  that  these  are  one  faculty,  their  con- 
stant association  in  activity  leads  me  to  speak  of  them  as 
one  process.  In  detection  of  likenesses  and  unlikenesses, 
we  discover  grounds  for  judgments.  Every  judgment 
pronounced  is  an  assertion  of  congruity  or  incongruity. 
As  every  act  is  the  explicit  or  implicit  expression  of  a 
judgment,  a ready  facility  in  the  apprehension  of  the 


28 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


grounds  of  judgments  is  a cultural  acquisition  of  prime 
importance. 

The  power  of  abstraction  is  another  factor  in  that 
intellectual  effectiveness  which  attaches  to  the  lines  of 
study  extolled  by  the  same  class  of  writers  about  culture. 
Abstraction  is  the  contemplation  of  one  thing  apart  from 
all  other  things.  It  is  simply  an  effort  of  attention 
carried  to  complete  success.  Attention  is  specially 
indispensable  in  the  search  for  relations  which  are  not 
immediately  obvious  — relations  between  things  incon- 
crete, or  abstracted  from  tangible  forms.  Every  con- 
tinued process  of  reasoning  depends  on  abstraction.  All 
mathematical  relations,  mental  powers  and  moral  qualities 
are  abstract.  The  power  of  abstraction  is  a faculty  in 
constant  demand,  but  especially  in  the  higher  efforts  of 
thought.  It  is  an  important  power  falling  plainly  within 
the  scope  of  general  culture. 

The  faculty  of  deductive  reasoning,  while  constantly 
employed  in  many  familiar  modes  of  mental  activity,  is 
also  one  especially  demanded  in  many  of  the  higher 
efforts  of  intelligence.  It  is  pre-eminently  the  faculty  of 
mathematics ; but  it  finds  constant  exercise  in  logic,  in 
philosophy,  in  physics,  and  wherever  principles  or 
abstract  truths  are  given,  and  their  consequences  or 
outcome  are  demanded.  Obviously,  mental  culture  must 
embrace  the  improvement  of  this  royal  power. 

But  deductive  reasoning  implies  a power  of  retention 
of  abstract  truths  or  principles.  This  is  often  designated 
the  philosophic  memory.  As  an  accessory  and  inseparable 
adjunct  of  ratiocinative  processes,  this  power  is  indispensa- 
ble in  the  higher  mental  activities ; and  its  capability  of 
perfect  exercise  must  be  one  of  the  conditions  of  most 


WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  CULTURE  ? 


29 


efficient  mental  service.  In  other  words,  complete 
culture  embraces  an  improved  power  of  philosophic  or 
thought  memory. 

It  will  scarcely  be  doubted  that  general  culture  involves 
the  quickening  of  the  imagination,  the  training  of  it  to 
moderation  and  consistency,  and  the  enjoyment  of  it  as 
an  adjunct  in  the  efforts  of  memory  and  deductive  reason- 
ing. The  picturing  power  of  this  faculty  gives  vividness 
to  the  reproductions  of  sense-memory,  and  readiness  in 
the  comprehension  of  descriptions.  It  is  an  invaluable 
instrument  in  the  attainment  of  clear  conceptions  of  the 
results  unfolded  by  deductive  processes.  The  inter- 
pretation of  the  results  reached  by  mathematical  reason- 
ing often  depends  wholly  on  the  illumination  of  the  field 
of  exploration  by  the  light  of  this  faculty.  It  goes  before 
discovery,  and  discloses  resting-places  for  thought  in  the 
midst  of  the  gloom  of  the  unknown.  Its  creative  powers 
are  often  exercised  under  the  promptings  of  analogy, 
congruity  or  contrast,  and  it  thus  becomes  luxuriant  in 
simile  and  metaphor.  By  its  luminous  apprehension  of 
the  forms  and  details  of  concrete  things  inaccessible  to 
perception,  it  contributes  to  graphic  description ; and 
through  its  resources  of  metaphor,  both  illuminates  the 
thought  and  garnishes  the  style.  Imagination  is  there- 
fore a powerful  instrument  in  the  creation  of  new  con- 
ceptions and  the  transmission  of  them  to  the  intelligence 
of  others.  A mind  well  fitted  for  the  creating  of  new 
conceptions  possesses  one  of  the  most  effective  gifts  of 
culture ; and  if,  in  addition,  it  wields  the  power  of 
graphic  and  pleasing  elucidation,  its  cultural  gifts  are 
brilliant,  attractive  and  useful.  Assuredly,  then,  the 


30 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


imagination  is  one  of  the  most  important  faculties  to 
improve  and  strengthen  by  the  arts  of  education. 

I have  mentioned  the  intellectual  powers  and  processes 
somewhat  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  the  subject  of 
disciplinary  exercise  in  the  popular  systems  of  “liberal” 
culture,  rather  than  in  the  order  of  their  imjiortance  or 
the  order  of  their  spontaneous  development.  Assuredly, 
however,  the  sense-memory  would  receive  no  content 
unless  the  sense-perceptions  had  been  previously  called 
into  activity ; and  the  picturing  power  of  imagination 
would  remain  latent  unless  sense-perception  had  supplied 
the  elements  of  its  creations.  Perceptions  are  the  antece- 
dents and  conditions  of  sense-memory,  of  imagination 
and  of  induction.  They  are  also  the  conditions  of  the 
awaking  from  slumber  of  those  intuitive  cognitions  of 
necessary  truths,  which  regulate  and  control  all  human 
actions.  Perceptions,  in  other  words,  are  the  antecedent 
conditions  of  all  knowledge  and  of  all  power  of  knowl- 
edge. In  a more  obvious  sense,  they  are  the  sole  means 
of  communication  with  the  external  world.  They  find 
therefore  a more  constant,  and  more  diversified  and  more 
essential  use  than  any  other  of  our  intellectual  powers. 
The  most  widely  and  variously  exercised  of  our  faculties 
are  those  which  most  demand  the  improvement  of  judi- 
cious culture.  To  learn  how  to  observe  most  advantage- 
ously should  be  one  of  the  chief  ends  of  education.  The 
educational  system  which  neglects  to  provide  for  the  due 
development,  and  the  early  development  of  powers  and 
habits  of  observation  supplies  a form  of  culture  which 
is  signally  defective. 

The  power  of  inductive  reasoning  should  not  be  omitted 
from  the  list  of  those  deserving  of  culture.  This,  in  truth, 


WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  CULTURE  ? 


31 


embracing  observation,  which  supplies  its  materials,  stands 
first  in  order  of  importance.  Induction  from  observed 
data  has  been  pronounced  the  characteristic  modern 
method  of  attaining  to  scientific  knowledge ; and  Sir 
Francis  Bacon,  very  mistakenly,  has  been  regarded,  in 
cant  phrase,  as  the  founder  of  the  inductive  method.  So 
far  as  this  is  true,  it  shows  with  what  aim  and  method  we 
must  proceed,  if  we  would  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the 
modern  march  of  intelligence.  So  far  as  induction  has 
been  pursued  from  the  earliest  dawn  of  reflective  thought,  it 
shows  what  is  the  inflexible  and  changeless  mandate  of 
nature  in  the  method  of  marshalling  our  powers  for  the 
search  of  truth.  In  either  view  aptness  and  good  logic  in 
the  drawing  out  of  general  truths  from  many  details  of 
observation  appear  plainly  to  be  essential  ends  of  well 
balanced  modern  culture.  Without  the  acquisition  of  this 
power,  education  is  glaringly  defective.  Whether  Baconian 
or  Aristotelian,  the  method  of  induction  brings  order  out 
of  a universe  of  discrete  facts,  and  lays  the  foundations  of 
principles  which  we  build  into  the  fabric  of  natural  science. 
Induction  has  more  than  a service  to  science  to  perform. 
Thousands  of  the  grotesque  and  unreasoned  nonsequiturs 
of  daily  life  are  but  the  outcome  of  hasty  inductions  ; and 
some  of  these,  as  in  the  search  for  petroleum,  gas,  or  coal, 
are  neither  harmless  nor  inexpensive.  To  train  this 
generalizing  power  so  that  it  serves  us  thoroughly  and 
truly  is  the  part  of  education  in  its  cultural  aspect.  I 
emphasize  this  truth,  because  it  is  quite  generally  ignored 
in  our  prevailing  forms  of  education,  at  the  same  time 
that  its  importance  seems  to  be  foremost. 

It  is  within  the  field  of  inductive  processes  that  the 
true  scientific  spirit  is  disclosed  and  exercised.  Beside 


32 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


the  influence  which  it  exerts  in  the  realm  of  technical 
knowledge,  the  extension  of  its  influence  into  society, 
politics,  religion  and  general  life  would  correct  many  of 
the  evils  of  misrepresentation,  slander,  false  arguments, 
political  mud-throwing  and  religious  superstition.  This 
is  an  ethical  influence  which  will  be  considered  in  another 
connection. 

In  the  advocacy  of  the  popular  form  of  liberal  culture, 
we  hear  much  of  the  creation  of  a good  taste.  The  study 
of  the  ancient  languages,  it  is  claimed,  with  truth,  tends 
to  improvement  of  the  taste.  If  I understand  the  meaning 
of  this  expression,  taste  is  the  perception  and  feeling  of 
congruity  or  fitness  in  the  realm  of  sensible  things.  It 
seeks  congruity  and  takes  pleasure  in  it.  It  knows  how  to 
shun  incongruities,  and  is  distressed  by  their  occurrence. 
A good  literary  taste  knows  what  juxtapositions  of  thought 
are  consecutive,  graduated,  and  pleasing,  and  it  knows 
what  juxtapositions  of  words  and  phrases  will  avoid  a jar, 
and  best  adapt  expression  to  the  thought.  In  music,  it 
appreciates  and  seeks  such  successional  relations  and 
harmonic  combinations  of  tones  as  are  congruous  with 
each  other  and  with  our  musical  apperceptions  ; and  such 
as  are  congruous  with  the  thought  or  feeling  which  the 
composer  seeks  to  express.  A good  artistic  taste  under- 
stands what  forms  and  colors  harmonize  with  the  common 
norms  of  beauty  and  fitness  implanted  in  the  soul.  It  is 
pre-eminently  literary  taste  which  the  prevailing  culture 
claims  to  shape  and  perfect.  Indisputably,  such  culture, 
beside  increasing  the  happiness  of  its  subject,  confers  a 
means  of  influence  which  improves  the  scholar’s  chances 
of  success  in  the  battles  of  life.  Such  control  of  the 


WHAT  IS  MEANT  BY  CULTURE  ? 


33 


adversities  of  situation  is  therefore,  eagerly  to  be  sought  in 
our  professed  systems  of  general  culture. 

The  foregoing  may  be  regarded  as  an  enumeration  and 
characterization  of  all  the  important  powers  which  fall 
within  the  scope  of  intellectual  culture.  The  term,  so 
far  as  I know,  is  not  employed,  and  cannot  be  employed, 
in  any  intelligible  sense  involving  more  than  the  educa- 
tional discipline  of  these.  What  our  linguistic  and 
literary  friends  mean  by  “culture”  cannot  refer  to  any 
occult  influences  bearing  in  any  other  direction  than  the 
improvement  of  these  powers.  It  seems  superfluous  to 
emphasize  so  plain  a proposition;  but  it  becomes  desirable 
to  bring  to  the  light  of  day  and  to  the  terms  of  defi- 
nite statement,  the  whole  secret  and  mystery  of  “ liberal 
culture.” 

It  is  intended  next,  to  present  an  analysis  of  the  con- 
tent of  geological  science,  and  then  an  examination  of  the 
nature  of  the  demands  which  it  makes  upon  the  powers 
of  the  student. 


IV. 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL 
STUDY. 

TTNLIKE  mathematics  and  many  other  subjects  of 
study,  the  science  of  geology  consists  of  various 
ranges  and  kinds  of  knowledge.  It  is  not  a mere  body  of 
facts  of  observation,  like  political  or  physical  geography  in 
the  ordinary  acceptation;  nor  of  facts  of  record,  like  history 
in  the  scholastic  sense.  It  is  not  merely  a field  stocked 
with  the  products  of  imagination  and  sentiment,  like 
popular  literature.  It  is  not  merely  a realm  of  abstract 
concepts  and  necessary  ideas,  like  metaphysics.  It  is  not 
merely  a system  of  deductive  processes  all  firmly  bound 
together  and  to  first  principles  by  necessary  laws  of 
thought,  like  mathematics.  It  is  not  merely  a depart- 
ment of  mental  activity  where  conclusions  are  balanced 
on  probabilities,  and  moral  certitude  is  the  highest  satis- 
faction afforded  the  aspiration  to  know,  as  in  many 
ecclesiastical,  political  and  educational  questions.  It  is 
all  these,  and  more  than  these.  Geology,  as  the  science 
of  the  natural  world,  embraces  all  which  the  natural 
world  contains;  all  with  which  it  is  historically  and  gen- 
etically connected,  and  all  the  accessories  and  means 
whose  employment  contributes  to  the  attainment  of  a 
knowledge  of  the  world  in  its  widest  relations.  It  is  the 
organization  of  all  the  sciences  in  a crusade  for  conquest 
in  the  realm  of  the  unknown.  To  illustrate  and  justify 
a claim  so  large,  I shall  venture  to  recite  in  brief  the 


34 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  STUDY.  35 

processes  by  which  geology  advances  from  the  most  fami- 
liar facts  of  observation,  step  by  step  through  generaliza- 
tions higher  and  higher,  to  the  grandest  doctrines  ever 
enunciated  by  science;  and  thence  by  a reverse,  or  deduct- 
ive process,  to  the  details  of  events  from  which  actual 
observation  is  separated  by  intervals  of  space  and  time  to 
finite  powers  impassable. 

The  beginning  of  all  this  fabric  of  geological  science  is 
what  we  see  by  the  roadside,  in  the  field,  on  the  moun- 
tain slope  or  the  ocean  strand.  In  our  daily  observations 
are  the  facts  which  point  the  way  to  the  loftiest  generali- 
zations of  the  science.  Let  me  confine  the  reader’s 
attention  to  a group  of  phenomena  leading  toward  the 
fundamental  doctrine  of  a cooling  globe.  About  our  very 
doors  lie  the  bowlders  whose  hard  and  crystalline  char- 
acter proclaims  the  agency  of  intense  heat.  In  the  struct- 
ure of  the  mountains  which  we  climb,  and  underneath 
the  lands  which  we  inhabit,  are  square  miles  of  rock 
similarly  crystalline  and  vitrified.  These  are  data  of 
observation.  They  are  data  of  easy  and  familiar  and 
universal  observation.  They  sustain  the  inductive  conclu- 
sion that  intense  heat  has  been  here.  Other  observations 
on  ancient  lavas — on  palisades,  dikes  and  extinct  volcanoes, 
indicate  that  the  heat  has  been  sufficient  to  fuse  the  rocks. 
Has  been — but  is  now  no  longer.  The  heat  has  subsided. 

Thermal  springs,  geysers,  artesian  borings,  deep  mines, 
volcanic  eruptions  supply  other  observational  data  from 
which  we  induce  the  doctrine  of  a heated  interior.  The 
earth  has  cooled,  but  is  still  hot  within.  The  earth  is  in 
the  midst  of  a cooling  process.  * 


* The  inductive  nature  of  the  great  body  of  geological  science  is  well 
understood.  I do  not  dwell  upon  this  feature,  because  I desire  to  illustrate 


36 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


This  is  a most  fruitful  principle.  If  the  earth  is  a 
cooling  globe,  two  inquiries  next  press  upon  us.  Through 
what  phases  of  existence  has  it  passed  in  its  remote 
history ; and  what  vicissitudes  is  it  destined  to  undergo 
in  the  future  continuance  of  the  cooling  process  ? From 
what  initium  did  the  cooling  process  set  forth,  and  at 
what  finality  will  it  end  ? No  one  can  fail  to  understand 
that  these  are  lofty  inquiries  ; and  that  any  well  grounded 
responses  must  lift  our  thoughts  into  the  realm  of  sublime 
truth.  But  the  history  of  the  earth’s  cooling  unrolls  a 
vista  through  the  past  eternity.  No  human  intelligence 
has  been  witness  of  the  events.  The  future  career  of  the 
cooling  globe  lies  in  the  folded  possibilities  of  events 
unreal  and  stretching  into  the  eternity  lying  in  the 
opposite  direction. 

But  these  lofty  questions  are  not  unanswerable.  The 
events  of  terrestrial  history  succeed  according  to  methods 
which  lie  revealed.  There  is  no  uncertain  caprice  in 
their  order  and  relationships.  Physical  events  run  in 
grooves.  What  we  observe  discloses  a trend  which  may 
be  followed  in  either  direction.  By  observation  we  have 
learned  the  laws  of  cooling,  and  the  elemental  and  cli- 
matic changes  which  depend  on  changes  of  temperature. 
If  the  earth  be  a cooling  globe,  we  may  with  confidence 
deduce  its  conditions  and  their  concomitances  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  cooling.  Here  our  reasoning  becomes 
deductive.  We  proceed  from  the  inductive  principle  of  a 
cooling  globe,  and  from  the  primary  principles  of  ther- 

the  important  fact  that  geology  is  not  exclusively  an  “inductive  science:  ' 
and  because  also,  I wish  to  have  it  understood  that  in  some  of  its  ranges  it 
reaches  the  ethical  nature  of  man,  and  demonstrates  realities  which  belong 
to  a supersensible  realm. 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  STUDY.  37 


modynamics,  and  retrace  the  cooling  history.  We  see  in 
imagination  as  we  recede,  a warmer  terrestrial  surface,  a 
more  tropical  climate,  and,  in  correlation,  more  tropical 
plants  and  animals.  We  strengthen  and  verify  the  deduc- 
tion by  the  inductive  data  afforded  by  the  successively 
deeper  sheets  of  ocean  sediment  now  hardened  in  rocky 
strata.  Farther  on  in  the  retrospect,  the  sediments  are 
but  beginning  to  accumulate.  The  mountains  are  still  in 
embryo  ; the  ocean  is  universal.  As  the  scroll  of  terres- 
trial history  continues  to  unfold,  the  ocean  itself  is  noticed 
at  its  natal  epoch  ; the  clouds  are  discharging  the  ocean 
from  their  bosom.  Here  the  possibilities  of  inductive 
confirmation  disappear.  Earlier  than  this  no  enduring 
rocky  forms  had  existed.  The  greater  heat  had  reduced 
all  terrestrial  matter  to  a fluid  state,  which  retained  no 
records.  This  is  the  starting  point  of  inductive  geology. 

But  this  is  not  the  starting  point  of  the  process  of 
cooling.  With  the  eye  of  imagination,  under  the  calm 
guidance  of  the  reasoning  powers,  we  behold  in  the 
remoter  past,  a world  of  firemist,  with  the  beginning  of  a 
central  nucleus  of  molten  matter.  In  the  profounder 
depths  of  the  eternity  past,  the  firemist  is  conceivably  in 
the  condition  of  a gas.  In  a history  of  cooling,  we  have 
learned  of  no  condition  antecedent  to  this.  The  gaseous 
state  of  matter  accompanies  the  highest  temperature 
known.  Do  not  understand  me  as  enunciating  the  doc- 
trine that  the  cooling  process  must  have  begun  at  a 
temperature  at  which  all  terrestrial  matter  existed  as  a 
gas.  I mean  only,  that  the  process  of  cooling  leads 
always  away  from  that  state  as  the  remotest  possi- 
bility. Actually,  it  may  have  proceeded  from  a condition 
thermally  subsequent  to  this.  The  subsequent  thermal 


38 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


condition  may  have  been  attained  from  some  older  state 
in  which  the  constituents  of  the  world  were  gathering 
together,  and  were  yet  even  at  a low  temperature.  I am 
not  seeking  to  reason  out  that  condition  of  the  world 
which  was  absolutely  primordial.  I seek  only  to  illustrate 
how  by  an  inverted  deduction,  we  may  recede  toward  a 
state  of  the  world  which  antedates  all  human  observation 
and  even  all  the  rocky  records  of  inductive  geology. 

Now,  having  found  a starting  point  — having  assumed 
any  remote  condition  as  a starting  point,  we  pursue  by 
direct  deduction,  the  course  of  events  which  under  the 
laws  of  matter,  must  have  ensued  in  the  progressive 
escape  of  heat  from  the  terrestrial  mass.  We  reason  out 
the  attainment,  sooner  or  later,  of  the  firemist  condition, 
the  precipitation  of  a molten  rain  and  the  growth  of  a 
molten  globe,  the  condensation  of  aqueous  vapor,  the 
enveloping  of  the  earth  in  a mantle  of  clouds,  the  descent 
of  aeonic  rains,  and  the  gathering  of  the  universal  ocean. 
Many  other  events  collateral  with  these,  we  logically  rea- 
son out.  By  the  aid  of  imagination,  the  scenes  enacted 
become  vivid  and  real,  and  our  understanding  of  them 
improved.  Now  we  see  how  and  when  marine  precipita- 
tion must  have  begun,  how  the  submarine  floor  by  thick- 
ening, became  melted  off  by  encroachment  of  heat  from 
below,  and  how  as  sedimentary  deposits  continued,  the 
deep-seated  residual  heat  invaded  upward  the  earlier  sea- 
sediments  and  transformed  them.  We  see  how  and  when 
the  time  arrived  for  the  possible  introduction  of  organic 
forms,  and  how  they  succeeded  each  other  as  the  rolling 
aeons  of  cooling  wrought  the  terrestrial  surface  into 
changed  conditions.  Of  all  these  post-crustal  events, 
the  crust  has  retained  some  records,  and  the  inductive 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  STUDY.  39 


evidences  from  them  check  and  verify  our  deductive 
inferences. 

Let  us  for  a moment  stand  on  a higher  plane  of  obser- 
vation, and  rise  to  a higher  generalization.  There  are 
other  planets  within  the  range  of  our  vision  which  exist 
under  the  same  forms  and  motions  and  accompaniments 
as  this  planet.*  They  are  regulated  by  the  same  system 
of  laws ; they  consist  of  the  same  matter ; they  undergo 
the  same  visible  vicissitudes.  Here  is  a body  of  data  of 
observation — not  indeed,  with  unaided  vision,  as  when  we 
noted  the  aspects  and  conditions  of  the  vitrified  and  crys- 
talline rocks — but  with  the  aid  of  the  telescope,  the  spectro- 
scope, the  polariscope  and  the  crucible.  From  these  data 
we  formulate  the  inference  that  all  the  planets  revealed 
through  our  instruments  are  bound  together  in  one  system, 
have  had  a common  history  and  are  moving  to  a common 
destination.  This  larger  generalization  produces  in  our 
minds  a conscious  expansion  — a larger  apprehension  of 
the  scope  and  unity  of  the  cosmic  plan.  This  higher 
attainment  of  thought  is  attended  by  a grateful  emotion , 
a spiritual  delight ; and  if  we  are  philosopher  enough  to 
contemplate  plan  as  the  correlative  and  expression  of  mind, 
we  feel  here,  in  the  presence  of  this  grand  disclosure,  a 
higher  certitude  of  supreme  mind,  and  a deeper  seated 
and  more  enduring  sentiment  of  devotion. 


* We  here  enter  a domain  of  thought  which  is  neither  geology  nor 
astronomy.  It  is  often  styled  cosmology.  From  one  direction  we  enter  it  by 
the  aYenues  of  geology,  and  geology  must  be  credited  for  pointing  the  way  to 
it.  From  another  direction  we  reach  it  over  the  highways  of  astronomy.  But 
geology  and  astronomy  contribute  somewhat  equally  to  the  store  of  ascer- 
tained facts  on  which  cosmological  reasonings  are  based.  The  correlations  of 
geology  and  astronomy  have  been  eloquently  traced  in  an  address  of 
Dr.  Joseph  Le  Conte  in  response  to  the  addresses  transferring  the  Lick 
Observatory  to  the  control  of  the  University  of  California,  June  27,  1888.  See 
“Formal  Recognition  of  the  Transfer,  ' etc.,  pp.  14-24. 


40 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  P 


At  the  level  of  this  loftier  generalization,  we  conceive 
the  matter  and  the  forms  of  all  the  planets  merged  in  one. 
Perhaps  the  common  mass  is  in  the  state  of  firemist,  and 
luminous.  Perhaps  it  is  a heterogeneous  assemblage  of 
mineral  particles  and  masses  undergoing  condensation, 
and  destined  in  a later  aeon,  to  evolve  the  heat  which  will 
develop  luminosity  and  reduce  portions  to  a state  of  fire- 
mist.  As  before,  I care  not  to  define  precisely  the  actual 
state  of  the  matter  of  the  solar  system  which  was  primor- 
dial. We  seek  only  a rational  commencement — a con- 
dition such  as  involved  all  later  conditions.  There  must 
have  been  a time — so  we  reason — when  the  evolution  of 
heat  began  to  be  surpassed  by  loss  of  heat.  From  that 
epoch  cooling  and  contraction  began.  Potation  is  a 
primordial,  necessary  condition  of  all  separate  masses  of 
cosmic  matter.  In  a rotating,  cooling  and  contracting 
spheroid,  the  changes  of  form  and  condition  resulting  are 
the  subjects  of  calculation.  Even  if  there  be  alternative 
lines  of  vicissitudes,  one  of  these  leads  on  through  pro- 
cesses of  annulation  and  spheration — with  possible  second- 
ary annulation  and  spheration — on  to  such  an  outcome  as 
we  see  exemplified  in  the  assemblage  of  planets  and  satel- 
lites constituting  our  solar  system.  And  this  earth  on 
which  we  dwell  is  a particular  outcome  of  such  an  evolu- 
tion— so  grand,  so  vast,  so  ancient.  And  all  that  is  now 
of  the  earth  was  involved  in  those  asonic  vicissitudes.  The 
bone  and  flesh  and  nervous  matter  of  our  bodies  existed  in 
that  primordial  firemist — in  those  annulating  spheres — in 
that  fervid  atmosphere — in  those  glowing  rocks — in  those 
ancient  sediments — in  the  shells  of  primeval  molluscs — in 
the  framework  of  generations  of  reptiles — enduring  as 
matter  ; and  our  plans  of  organization  give  expression  to 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  STUDY.  41 


thoughts  no  less  enduring.  Such  is  the  unity  of  the 
organism  of  the  planetary  system,  and  such  the  unity  of 
man  with  the  organism  of  the  worlds. 

In  this  regressus  of  thought,  we  rise  to  a still  higher 
plane.  * The  sun  appears  as  the  residuum  of  a prolonged 
process  of  planetation.  By  the  aid  of  our  instruments 
we  learn  that  the  stars  are  other  suns.  Imagination 
kindles  and  emotion  warms  at  the  suggestion  of  such  a 
fact.  The  stars  then,  are  so  many  centres  of  planetary 
systems  completed.  Yes,  to  the  utmost  limit  of  the 
visible  universe,  the  same  modes  of  world-life  prevail  as 
are  exemplified  in  our  own  system — the  same  as  are 
revealed  in  continental  masses  and  granite  cliffs  and 
ocean  sediments  on  this  orb  to  which  we  have  been 
assigned  as  its  inhabitants.  There  must  be  then,  other 
planets.  There  must  be  other  inhabitants.  If  other 
inhabitants,  their  intelligence  is  akin  to  ours;  for  other- 
wise, the  universe  around  them,  so  interpretable  to  us, 
would  be  uninterpretable  to  them;  and  the  fitness  of 
things  which  reigns  everywhere  within  our  cognizance, 
would  be  turned  into  contradiction  of  the  testimony  of 
the  universe.  Reason  refuses  to  credit  this.  Other 
intelligences  there  are,  to  whom  the  universe  has  the 
same  meaning  as  to  us;  who  think  as  we  think;  who  are 
already  familiar  with  our  ideas,  or  are  ready  to  receive 
them  and  to  impart  to  us  their  own. 

Does  not  the  reader  find  such  ranges  of  thought 

*1  fear  that  some  parts  of  this  sketch  are  too  condensed  to  be  fully  intelli- 
gible to  readers  to  whom  the  course  of  thought  is  unfamiliar.  Let  it  be  borne 
in  mind  however,  that  it  is  less  the  particular  truth  than  the  inference  to  be 
drawn  from  the  range  of  thought,  that  is  here  specially  of  consequence.  The 
writer  has  elsewhere  presented  ample  elucidation  of  the  details  of  these 
reasonings. 


42 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


expansive,  ennobling,  spiritualizing?  Possibly  be  is  say- 
ing this  is  not  geology.  No — not  in  the  school-book 
sense.  But  geology  in  the  stricter  sense  leads  to  the 
high-swung  bridges  over  which  thought  passes  by  an 
uninterrupted  continuity  of  path  into  the  realms  of 
philosophy  and  theology,  whose  light  tinges  the  clouds 
which  engirt  a primeval  world.  I suffer  myself  to  follow 
thought  into  these  remoter  realms  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  vastness  of  the  range  of  geological  con- 
templation, though  the  ordinary  geologist  may  seldom 
explore  it.  Geological  facts  and  doctrines , with  which 
we  are  all  chiefly  occupied,  lie  in  a single  province  of  the 
science. 

I said  that  the  grooves  of  passing  events  run  into  the 
distant  future  as  into  the  distant  past  over  which  the 
reader  has  been  transported  by  a rapid  flight.  By  direct 
deductive  reasoning  from  the  generalized  principle  of  a 
cooling  globe,  we  are  able  to  depict  future  vicissitudes 
with  no  less  certainty  than  those  past.  We  anticipate 
a frozen  world  and  a darkened  sun.  From  the  general- 
ized doctrine  of  slow  continental  degradation  we  depict 
beforehand  the  destructive  work  of  future  ages.  From 
the  action  of  the  moon  on  the  lagging  lunar  tide,  we  are 
enabled  to  foresee  a lengthened  day,  and  finally  synchro- 
nistic rotary  and  orbital  movements  of  the  earth,  accom- 
plished by  a slower  action  of  the  sun  on  the  solar  tide. 
Through  the  operation  of  a resisting  medium — whether 
ethereal,  meteoric  or  molecular — we  look  forward  to  a 
general  gathering  of  all  the  dead  planets  at  a common 
sepulchre.  Then  by  completing  the  parallelism  already 
delineated  in  reference  to  the  past,  we  learn  that  the 
unrolled  history  of  this  world  represents  that  of  all  the 


DIVERSIFIED  ASPECTS  OF  GEOLOGICAL  STUDY.  43 


worlds  of  our  system ; and  the  unrolled  history  of  the 
system  pictures  that  of  the  firmament.  And  now  the 
grand  and  culminating  inference  of  all  science  looms 
before  our  intelligence  in  majesty  awful  and  inspir- 
ing : The  history  of  matter  is  one  in  all  the  bounds 

of  space  and  in  all  the  aeons  of  time  past  and  time 
to  come.  The  vicissitudes  of  yesterday  are  a para- 
graph in  the  annals  of  universal  matter.  In  that 
totality  every  human  life  is  a constituent  part.  Man 
stands  in  the  midst,  and  casting  his  mental  glances  back- 
ward and  forward,  affirms  and  feels  his  unity  with  all. 
Man  only  as  an  organism.  Those  glances  are  not  the 
rays  of  sun  or  star  — they  are  the  thoughts  which 
imperishable  and  unchanging  mind  has  written  on  the 
forms  of  star  and  planet  and  organism.  And  thus,  out 
from  the  forms  of  matter  as  they  perish  and  disappear, 
rises  an  entity  which  neither  changes  nor  disappears,  nor 
yet  endures  as  mindless  matter- — but  endures  in  self- 
consciousness  and  self -activity,  and  constituting  man’s 
essential  self,  unveils  to  vision  another  universe  where 
suns  neither  wax  nor  wane,  and  the  limitations  and 
infirmities  of  changeful  matter  never  interrupt  or  ruffle 
the  gentle  current  of  eternal  being. 


V. 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 

r I UIESE  thoughts  are  presented  with  no  intent  to  expa- 
tiate  on  the  themes  of  science.  My  purpose  is  only 
to  indicate  the  vastness  of  the  range  of  cognitions  and 
contemplations  to  which  the  study  of  geology  invites.  It 
begins  with  simple  facts  of  easy  observation.  It  calls  the 
percipient  powers  into  pleasant  exercise.  In  observing 
separate  facts  we  compare  them  with  each  other.  By 
processes  of  judgment  we  pronounce  them  identical  or 
similar  or  diverse.  If  similar  we  abstract  the  particular 
characters  in  which  the  similarity  consists,  and  decide 
whether  they  are  trivial  or  fundamental.  The  wide 
ranges  of  facts  brought  under  observation  are  distributed 
into  groups.  Names  for  the  facts  there  must  be,  and 
thus  arises  a technical  nomenclature,  which  gives  us  addi- 
tional exercise  in  verbal  memory.  In  extending  our 
knowledge  of  facts  beyond  the  sphere  of  personal  obser- 
vation, we  resort  to  the  records  of  the  observations  of 
others.  We  are  led  to  the  use  of  foreign  languages.  We 
obtain  the  cultural  benefits  of  linguistic  study.  Our 
various  groups  of  facts  lead  to  various  generalizations  or 
interpretations.  One  group  points  to  a former  high  tem- 
perature on  the  earth,  as  we  have  seen.  Another  convinces 
us  that  the  lands  have  been  covered  by  a universal  sea, 
and  that  the  bedded  rocks  are  but  its  sediments.  Another 
group  indicates  the  magnitude  of  land  erosions  in  the 
past,  and  the  complete  obliteration  of  ancient  continents. 


44 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


45 


Another  group  of  facts  establishes  the  doctrine  that  the 
earliest  animals  were  invertebrates  ; and  that  the  oldest 
vertebrates  were  marine  ; and  in  short,  that  the  order  of 
succession  in  the  advents  of  animal  types  wyas  identical 
with  the  order  of  rank  — thus  contributing  one  of  the 
principles  on  which  -we  base  that  higher  generalization — 
evolution— which  expresses  the  method  of  Supreme  Mind 
in  all  the  successions  of  the  natural  world.  Within  each 
of  these  broader  and  more  obvious  generalizations  are 
others  of  more  limited  scope.  If  the  first  vertebrates 
were  marine,  so  the  first  marine  vertebrates  were  not 
fishes  of  typical  structure,  but  of  archaic  forms  now  long 
extinct.  If  land  vegetation  appeared  after  marine,  it  -was 
at  first  only  a flowerless  jungle.  The  great  body  of  geo- 
logical doctrines  consists  of  inductions  like  these,  founded 
upon  facts  of  observation.  Many,  very  many  of  the 
facts  are  near  and  familiar  ; many  are  remote  and  unfa- 
miliar. A large  part  of  the  body  of  geological  science 
consists  of  a record  of  facts.  The  generalizations  are  not, 
indeed,  postponed  till  all  the  facts  of  the  science  are  cata- 
logued. We  begin  to  draw  our  generalizations  while  yet 
we  must  hold  them  as  merely  tentative.  Final  generaliza- 
tions may  displace  them ; and  even  these  in  some  cases, 
may  prove  not  to  be  final ; or  may  prove  to  be  wholly 
erroneous.  By  a law  of  our  minds  v7e  begin  to  generalize 
as  soon  as  two  or  more  cognate  facts  are  brought  together  ; 
and  continually  test  and  revise  our  generalizations,  as 
long  as  new  facts  of  the  same  group  prove  incompatible 
with  earlier  generalizations.  Then  we  have  reached  a 
principle  or  doctrine.  Thus  it  is  a doctrine  to-day  that 
Dinosaurs  did  not  survive  the  close  of  Mesozoic  time.  But 


46 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


if  to-morrow  we  find  the  remains  of  Tertiary  Dinosaurs, 
that  generalization  must  be  rectified. 

Thus  in  dealing  with  the  great  body  of  geological 
science,  we  keep  the  observational  faculties  in  training. 
With  this,  we  exercise  the  powers  of  sense-memory  and  of 
language.  This  training  holds  a large  place  in  the 
exactions  of  geological  study.  So  far  as  trained  quick- 
ness and  exactness  of  perception  constitute  mental  cul- 
ture, the  study  of  geology  is  eminently  cultural.  In 
dealing  with  the  same  great  body  of  the  science,  we 
keep  the  inductive  powers  in  constant  exercise.  Their 
activity,  as  I have  said,  is  the  characteristic  activity  of 
modern  intelligence,  in  distinction  from  mediasval  and 
ancient  thought.  If  the  training  of  the  mind  in  those 
methods  of  activity  which  tend  to  identify  it  with  modern 
thought,  and  make  it  master  of  the  characteristic  results 
of  modern  thought,  is  a useful  training  and  a desirable 
training,  then  the  habits  of  inductive  reasoning  fostered 
by  geology  constitute  an  eminently  valuable  form  of  men- 
tal culture. 

But  with  these  studies  come  various  forms  of  incidental 
culture.  Many  of  the  facts  are  recorded  in  works  of 
travel  and  description  written  in  style  of  high  literary 
excellence.  Allow  me  to  cite  Hugh  Miller’s  “ Old  Bed 
Sandstone;”  Major  Powell’s  “Exploration  of  the  Col- 
orado Biver  of  the  West;”  Captain  Dutton’s  “High 
Plateaus  of  Utah,”  and  Miss  Bird’s  “Fire-Fountains;” — 
or  in  a different  field,  the  Duke  of  Argyll’s  “Unity  of 
Nature.”  If  the  student  is  called  upon  to  record  his 
observations,  as  well  he  might  be,  he  may  acquire  a 
copiousness  of  diction  and  a beauty  of  style  not  inferior 
to  that  promoted  by  essays  on  historical  or  romantic 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


47 


themes.  More  indirectly,  come  the  acquisition  of  lan- 
guages and  the  enrichment  of  the  vocabulary. 

With  these  forms  of  geological  study  will  be  noticed  an 
accessory  training  of  the  imagination.  The  picturing 
power  is  demanded  even  in  bringing  into  juxtaposition 
in  thought,  absent  data  of  observation  which  have  to  be 
compared  together.  Still  more  is  it  demanded  in  acquir- 
ing a vivid  comprehension  of  data  presented  through 
descriptions.  Especially  is  this  demanded  in  the  study 
of  descriptions  of  fossil  remains  unaccompanied  by  delinea- 
tions ; and  not  less  in  the  drawing  up  of  such  descrip- 
tions. I know  palgeontologists  who  declare  that  a mere 
description  of  a fossil  shell  is  unintelligible  ; but,  pro- 
vided the  description  is  good,  it  would  become  intelligible 
with  improved  picturing  power  in  the  imagination.  The 
facts  show  that  in  the  study  of  descriptions  of  fossil 
remains,  and  other  facts  not  fully  illustrated  by  drawings, 
the  imagination  is  kept  in  constant  exercise.  The 
cultural  results  on  this  faculty  are  therefore  of  great 
effectiveness  and  high  value. 

In  an  accessory  way  also,  comes  discipline  in  the  art  of 
delineation.  It  is  impossible  for  the  geological  observer 
to  record  his  observations  without  the  ability  to  accompany 
them  with  drawings.  If  the  student  has  had  no  instruc- 
tion or  practice  in  drawing,  he  will  soon  obtain  the 
practice,  and  then  the  instruction  will  be  unessential. 
On  almost  every  excursion,  the  student  or  investigator 
must  execute  from  nature  geological  sections  or  geological 
maps.  Not  unfrequently,  he  must  delineate  some  fossil 
which  cannot  be  removed  from  the  rock,  or  embody 
some  delineation  in  a description.  I am  aware  that  fin- 
ished drawings  exhaust  much  time,  and  are  commonly 


48 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


confided  to  special  artists.  Still,  drawing  is  one  of  the 
demands  of  geological  study  and  investigation  : and  this 
artistic  acquirement  is  one  of  the  forms  of  culture  for 
which  the  science  of  geology  provides. 

The  same  demand  for  pictorial  illustration  leads  the 
field  geologist  to  subsidize  for  his  ends,  the  superb  pictur- 
ing power  of  the  photographic  camera.  Topography, 
mountain  forms,  rock-structure,  details  of  stratification, 
water-falls  invite  to  the  application  of  the  camera  while 
in  the  field  ; and  the  exact  delineation  of  fossil  forms  is 
greatly  promoted  by  photography  in  the  laboratory. 
Thus  the  geologist  is  led  still  further  to  diversify  his 
accomplishments,  and  add  to  the  sources  of  his  efficiency 
as  a geologist,  and  of  his  enjoyments  as  a lover  of  nature. 

These  various  forms  of  mental  exercise  and  discipline  are 
incident  to  the  acquisition  of  the  facts  and  doctrines  of 
geologic  science.  I have  illustrated  a higher  range  of 
geological  truth,  and  I wish  to  impress  the  fact  that  its 
acquisition  calls  into  exercise  another  range  of  intellectual 
powers.  The  faculties  of  deductive  or  a priori  reasoning 
come  into  play  in  the  attempt  to  proceed  from  an  admitted 
principle  to  the  particulars  which  it  involves  or  necessitates 
as  consequences.  Geological  investigation  very  f requen  tly 
takes  the  deductive  form.  It  does  not  often  proceed 
from  necessary  principles,  as  in  mathematical  reasoning : 
but  generally  from  a principle  or  truth  established  by 
previous  inductive  research.  When  a distinguished  Amer- 
ican geologist  described  a large  number  of  three-toed  tracks 
found  in  the  brown  sandstones  of  the  Connecticut  valley, 
and  ascribed  them  to  extinct  species  of  birds,  the  elder 
Agassiz  reasoned  deductively  when  he  declared  that  they 
could  not  be  bird-tracks,  since  birds,  according  to  all 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


49 


inductions,  had  not  begun  to  exist  at  so  early  an  age  of  the 
world.  Similarly,  the  geologist  declares  that  coal  will 
never  be  discovered  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson  river, 
however  black  and  misleading  some  of  the  slates  may  be  ; 
since  all  productive  coal  measures  have  been  found  to  hold 
a higher  stratigraphic  position.  More  marked  and  pro- 
longed employment  of  deductive  inference  is  observed  in 
the  treatment  of  those  geological  problems  which  admit  of 
the  application  of  the  methods  of  mathematical  analysis. 
Some  of  these  problems  are  as  follows  : The  temperature 
of  the  earth’s  interior ; the  thickness  of  the  earth’s  crust ; 
the  condition  of  the  central  matter  of  the  earth  ; the 
existence  of  tidal  effects  in  the  earth's  general  mass ; 
the  greatest  possible  altitude  of  mountains ; the  sub- 
meridional direction  of  mountain  chains;  the  sufficiency 
of  cooling  wrinkles  for  the  total  of  mountain  folds ; the 
existence  and  position  of  a zone  of  no  stress  in  the  crust 
of  a cooling  planet.  Then  in  that  higher  range  of  geol- 
ogical investigation  which  may  be  styled  comparative 
geology,  or  an  application  of  the  doctrines  of  geology  to 
the  conditions  and  histories  of  other  planets,  we  find  many 
uses  for  mathematical  methods ; as  in  the  study  of  the 
moon’s  atmosphere,  her  craters,  her  surface  clefts  and  other 
physical  conditions  ; the  conditions  of  Jupiter,  and  of 
Saturn  and  Uranus,  and  the  light  they  throw  on  past  and 
future  conditions  of  our  own  planet. 

Without  the  application  of  mathematical  analysis,  the 
general  processes  of  deductive  reasoning  from  the  princi- 
ple of  a cooling  world,  afford,  as  I have  shown,  large 
and  valuable  exercise  for  the  higher  intelligence.  It  is  a 
regal  power  by  which  we  explore  in  thought  the  distant 
ages  of  terrestrial  history  which  elapsed  before  even 
4 


50 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


the  race  of  man  existed,  or  the  sons  of  cosmic  vicissi- 
tudes undergone  before  even  the  world  had  existence. 
It  is  a regal  power  by  which  we  may  stand  here  and 
glance  down  through  the  sons  of  terrestrial  changes 
yet  future.  The  past  has  been  real,  but  the  future 
is  unenacted.  The  intellectual  eye,  through  the  tele- 
scope of  geology,  pierces  through  all  potentiality.  It  is 
prophetic.  It  enables  us  to  live  alike  in  the  sons  of 
the  j)ast  and  the  sons  of  the  future.  It  confers  on  us 
a limited  omnipresence  and  omnipotence.  Xo  enlight- 
ened man  can  possibly  deny  that  such  exercises  of 
mind  are  lofty,  noble,  cultural — cultural  and  improving 
to  an  extent  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  circle  of  human 
thought. 

There  are  those — among  them  a few  geologists — who 
affirm  that  these  lofty  deductive  reasonings  are  little 
more  than  flights  of  the  imagination,  and  that  the 
results  do  not  belong  to  the  body  of  recognized  science. 
These  men  conceive  geology  as  properly  restricted  to 
its  body  of  facts  and  generalizations.  It  is  easy  to  show 
that  such  a dogma  is  impossible  of  observance,  and 
is  violated  daily  even  by  those-  who  acknowledge  only 
positive  geology.  But  a thoughtful  consideration  of 
the  mode  of  evolution  of  our  grand  deductive  conclu- 
sions will  show  that  they  are  reasoned  out,  not  imagined. 
The  difference  between  a pure  romance  and  a romantic 
inference  is  as  wide  as  the  beginning  and  conclusion 
of  terrestrial  history.  It  cannot  be  claimed  that  the 
particular  denouements  which  we  picture  have  been  or 
are  to  be  actual  events.  The  pathway  of  reasoning 
often  bifurcates,  and  we  may  pursue  either  road  to 
conclusions.  There  are  always  concomitances  lying 


GEOLOGY  AYD  CULTURE. 


51 


alongside,  which  are  the  outcomes  of  causes  acting  out- 
side of  our  trains  of  reasoning.  These  may  determine 
whether  the  actual  course  of  events  will  pursue  the 
right  or  the  left.  We  know  however,  that  it  will  pursue 
one  or  the  other;  or  at  least  some  course  within  the  scope 
of  rational  anticipation.  With  all  these  qualifications  and 
uncertainties  of  actual  detail,  the  sublime  fact  remains, 
that  our  science  enables  us  to  mount  into  the  aeons  past, 
and  plunge  into  the  depths  of  the  aeons  to  come,  and 
get  visions,  even  if  dim,  of  the  stupendous  events 
flowing  out  of  the  exercise  of  infinite  power  and  infinite 
intelligence  in  the  realms  of  infinite  space  and  infinite 
time. 

Let  me  add  that  if  these  visions  are  absolutely  unreal, 
the  exercise  of  the  intelligence  is  still  the  same.  It  is  an 
exercise  of  the  loftiest  powers  of  the  mind,  and  if  it 
leaves  in  our  possession  no  real  knowledge,  but  only 
culture,  it  stands  on  a footing  equal  with  some  other 
studies  deliberately  pursued  simply  for  their  cultural 
influence — and  that,  even  on  a lower  range  of  faculties 
than  those  employed  in  the  higher  inductions  and  deduc- 
tions of  geological  science. 

It  must  have  occurred  to  the  reader  that  much  yet 
remains  to  be  said  of  the  cultural  influence  of  the  higher 
reasonings  of  geology.  I allow  myself  a few  words  fur- 
ther. Imagination,  I said,  is  not  the  creator  of  the 
histories,  past  and  future,  which  I have  depicted  in 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  world;  but  it  is  the  indispensable 
instrument  for  securing  to  the  understanding  a vivid 
apprehension  of  the  reality,  the  nature  and  meaning 
of  those  vicissitudes.  These  exercises  of  the  higher  rea- 
son keep  imagination  in  constant  and  pleasing  activity. 


52 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


and  thus  train  a power  which  sheds  over  the  logical 
products  of  the  miud  a vivid  radiance,  and  often  lights 
the  way  for  the  understanding  into  the  dark  regions  of 
the  unknown. 

The  loftiness  of  these  themes  demands  a lofty  style. 
To  portray  them  to  the  common  intelligence — always 
eager  to  learn  of  them — demands  such  imagery  and 
metaphor  and  lucidity  and  earnestness  as  belong  to  the 
higher  ranges  of  polite  literature.  If  a good  use  of 
language  be  one  of  the  results  of  culture,  here  are 
examples  for  imitation,  and  here  are  opportunities  for 
scholastic  exercise. 

In  commencing  this  discussion,  I proposed  to  confine 
my  treatment  to  intellectual  culture,  but  the  friends  of 
geology  might  well  charge  me  with  remissness,  if  I should 
fail  to  remind  the  reader  again,  of  the  moral  and 
spiritual  improvement  which  comes  from  such  contem- 
plations as  I have  pointed  out  respecting  the  unity  of 
the  realm  of  nature,  and  the  revelation  of  Supreme 
Intelligence  which  we  read  everywhere  in  the  plans  and 
methods  of  nature.  Tim  ethical  influence  of  geology 
will  be  specially  considered. 

I could  not  say  more  within  reasonable  limits  of  sjtace. 
Enough  I hope,  has  been  said  to  establish  the  proposition 
that  the  study  of  geology  is  suited  for  universal  culture. 
In  its  various  grades  and  departments  it  calls  into  exer- 
cise every  power  of  intelligence,  and  even  comes  into 
moving  relations  with  the  ethical  susceptibilities.  What 
more  is  universal  culture  ? What  more  is  symmetrical 
culture  ? Who  can  claim  any  discipline  of  intelligence 
as  not  reached  bv  the  influence  of  geological  learning  ? 
I shall  not  institute  comparisons  in  detail.  I leave  it 


GEOLOGY  AXD  CULTUBE. 


53 


to  my  readers  to  seek  out  other  lines  of  study  capable 
of  a wider  or  more  profitable  culture.  Their  efforts 
will  but  enforce  the  truth  of  my  conclusion. 

I am  not  so  unreasonable  as  to  maintain  that  geology 
is  the  only  science  to  be  studied  ; or  that  other  sciences 
or  literatures  do  not  afford  particular  kinds  of  culture  to 
a greater  extent  than  geology.  I only  desire  the  truth  to 
be  discerned  and  acknowledged,  and  acted  upon,  that 
geology  is  a study  capable  of  culture  more  diversified 
than  is  found  in  the  pursuit  of  those  studies  often  pre- 
scribed  exclusively  for  their  cultural  value. 

I have  presented  geology  simply  as  a means  of  culture. 
I have  not  considered  it  as  a means  of  useful  knowledge. 
An  elucidation  of  the  utilitarian  side  of  geologic  study 
would  show  that  in  geology  we  possess  the  means  of 
uniting  general  culture  with  the  attainment  of  useful 
knowledge.  Thus  is  doubled  the  claim  of  geological 
study  upon  our  regards  as  educators  and  promoters  of 
the  best  civilization.  This  aspect  of  geology  will  also  be 
separately  considered. 

These  positions  being  established,  it  might  still  remain 
to  examine  the  relations  of  geological  science  to  the 
developing  intelligence  of  the  young.  Though  this  also 
is  a field  which  cannot  now  be  entered,  it  would  be  easy 
to  show,  as  I hope  to  show  later,  that  many  of  the 
observational  data  of  the  science  are  precisely  suited  to  the 
stage  of  intellectual  development  of  young  pupils ; other 
data,  and  the  inferential  principles  of  the  science,  to 
pupils  of  progressively  maturer  years.  And  finally,  it 
would  be  easy  to  illustrate  practically  the  observational 
method  of  introducing  the  familiar  elements  of  geology 
to  pupils  of  tender  years,  and  proceeding  by  gradual 


54 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


expansion  and  elevation  of  the  method,  to  ranges  of 
geological  thought  suited  to  pupils  of  full  maturity. 

I commend  the  subject  to  the  reader’s  reflections. 
What  I have  said  is  true  or  untrue,  or  partly  true  and 
partly  untrue.  If  true,  educators  cannot,  as  reasonable 
persons,  permit  the  science  of  geology  to  remain  under 
their  reproach  and  neglect  as  a materialistic  science — a 
“bread  and  butter  science.”  They  must  act ; they  must 
acknowledge  the  truth,  and  allow  geology  to  come  into 
the  enjoyment  of  its  rights  in  the  field  of  education.  If 
what  I have  said  is  untrue,  my  positions  demand  an 
impartial  refutation ; for  a wide  and  powerful  public 
sentiment  is  gathering  at  my  side.  If  they  are  partly 
true,  I shall  continue  to  maintain  that  the  true  is  the 
larger  part,  until  my  numerous  and  powerful  literary 
friends  honor  my  views  with  the  electric  light  and  heat 
of  their  destructive  criticism. 


VI. 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE. 

/CONCEIVING  intellectual  culture  to  consist  in  a 
training  of  the  intellectual  faculties  by  means  of 
appropriate  activity,  I passed  in  review,  on  a former  page, 
the  various  powers  of  the  intelligence,  and  glanced  at  the 
relation  which  each  in  its  exercise  sustains  to  human  life. 
There  is  nothing  in  human  life  except  the  exercise  of 
some  power  or  group  of  powers.  Whatever  we  accom- 
plish for  ourselves  or  for  others  we  accomplish  through 
the  action  of  powers  which  we  possess.  If  we  conceive 
ourselves  in  a state  of  pure  passivity,  so  long  as  we  retain 
consciousness,  the  pleasure  or  pain  which  we  experience 
enters  consciousness  as  a secjuent  to  bodily  and  cerebral 
activities.  The  very  capacity  for  delightful  passivity, 
if  of  any  order  above  mere  animal  existence,  has  been 
acquired  by  previous  activities,  and  exists  only  through 
the  present  activity  of  consciousness.  Whatever  we  are 
intellectually,  or  accomplish  through  the  exercise  of  intel- 
ligence, is  possible  only  through  the  activity  of  the  powers 
heretofore  passed  in  .review.  When  we  have  ascertained 
the  relations  of  geological  research,  study  and  knowledge 
to  these  various  powers,  we  have  ascertained  the  relations 
of  the  science  to  intellectual  culture.  This  cannot  be 
otherwise,  unless  intellectual  culture  consists  in  whole 
or  part  in  something  more  than  the  perfect  use  of  our 
intellectual  faculties. 

I am  quite  aware  that  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 


55 


56 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


culture  the  term  connotes  the  possession  of  a certain 
amount  and  kind  of  literary  knowledge;  and  it  is  sup- 
posed-the  acquisition  of  this  knowledge  has  involved  a 
training  of  the  intelligence  superior  to  the  training 
afforded  by  the  acquisition  of  scientific  knowledge,  though 
accomplished  by  the  working  of  exactly  the  same  facul- 
ties ; so  that  culture  is  both  a training  and  an  acquisition. 
Remarking  that  this  assumption  is  the  very  issue  under 
examination,  I wish  to  suggest  that  in  any  proper  use  of 
terms,  culture  is  the  preparation  of  the  soil,  while  knowl- 
edge gained  is  the  crop  produced  as  an  incident  of  culture. 
Discipline  is  culture ; knowledge  is  an  acquisition  held. 
The  possession  of  literary  information  is  undoubtedly 
desirable.  There  can  be  no  finished  education  without 
it.  But  in  no  rational  sense  does  culture  consist  in  such 
possession.  Real  culture  is  what  I have  conceived  and 
described  it ; and  I am  unable  to  view  its  relations  to 
geological  study  in  any  other  light  than  that  in  which  I 
have  already  placed  it.* 

Yet  it  is  possible  that  many  devotees  of  the  literary 
education  would  claim  that  my  analysis  fails  to  reach  the 
real  spirit  of  true  culture.  There  is  a feeling  that  cul- 
ture is  something  too  spiritual  to  analyze,  too  intangible 
to  describe,  too  ethereal  to  be  expressed  even  in  the  terms 
of  psychology.  There  is  a sort  of  transcendent  state  of 
soul  attained  by  the  listless  contemplation  of  the  felicities 
of  elegant  literature.  It  is  delicious  to  repose  with 
Tityrus  who, 

Patulae  recubans  sub  tegmine  fagi, 
makes  verses  to  the  sylvan  muse.  There  is  exquisite  and 
elevated  enjoyment  in  passing  a languid  afternoon  over 
the  pages  of  the  Nodes  Ambrosian®,  or  the  dreamy 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE. 


57 


vagaries  of  Sleepy  Holloiv.  It  is  truly  something — it  may 
be  much — to  become  able  to  appreciate  the  masterpieces 
of  rhetorical  composition  ; and  I would  never  harm  the 
culture  which  fosters  the  powers  which  create  them  or 
cherish  them.  But  I believe  the  most  transcendental 
phases  of  culture  are  amenable  to  psychological  analysis, 
and  that  in  the  end,  no  capacities  will  be  found  existing 
except  such  as  we  may  name  and  define. 

However  this  may  be,  I intend  here  to  allow  the 
devotees  of  soul-training  to  speak  for  themselves.  I will 
first  cpiote  the  celebrated  passage  from  Plato.  Of  this 
Dr.  Payne  says  : “I  know  of  nothing  that  comes  nearer 

a definition  of  culture  than  Plato’s  conception  of  the 
philosophic  character.”  * The  passage  is  as  follows  : 

“A  lover,  not  of  a part  of  wisdom,  but  of  the  whole  ; 
who  has  a taste  for  every  sort  of  knowledge,  and  is  curious 
to  learn,  and  is  never  satisfied ; who  has  magnificence  of 
mind  and  is  the  spectator  of  all  time  and  all  existence  ; 
who  is  harmoniously  constituted  ; of  a well-proportioned 
and  gracious  mind ; whose  own  nature  will  move  sponta- 
neously towards  the  true  being  of  everything ; who  has  a 
good  memory,  and  is  quick  to  learn,  noble,  gracious,  the 
friend  of  truth,  justice,  courage,  temperance.”  f 

I join  with  the  culture  of  the  ages  in  greeting  Plato 
with  warm  appreciation  and  endorsement.  There  is 
nothing  mystical  here.  Catholicity  of  scholarly  tastes — 
that  is  a thought  which  can  be  grasped,  and  a doctrine 
commended  by  the  diversification  of  our  mental  powers 
and  aptitudes.  Always  eager  to  know  more  of  the  truth — 
that  is  our  premonition  of  a higher  state  where  the  desire  of 

* William  II.  Payne:  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education , p.  288. 

+ Plato,  Republic , Jowett’s  translation,  pp.  475-7. 


58 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


truth  will  supersede  all  sensualistic  desires.  The  spectator 
of  all  time  and  all  existence — how  can  the  philosopher 
more  nearly  become  this  than  by  following  the  leading  of 
geology  up  the  flights  of  thought  to  the  pinnacle  where 
time  unmeasured,  and  space  unbounded,  and  causation 
unexhausted,  and  order  undisturbed,  and  unity  unbroken 
lie  before  his  intellectual  gaze.  This  pinnacle  crowns 
the  temple  of  geology.  The  spectacle  may  be  truly  charac- 
terized as  conferring  magificence  of  mind.  Harmoniously 
constituted — having  a many-sided  education  ; learned  in 
literature  and  in  sciences ; if  not  learned,  then  at  least 
hospitable  toward  all,  symmetrically  ecptipped  with  the 
knowledges  and  disciplines  supplied  by  all.  Drawn  by 
the  sight  of  truth  which  is  real,  not  by  the  fascinations  of 
glitter,  the  seductions  of  indolent  sentiment,  or  the 
fancied  advantages  of  languid  traditions.  An  aptitude 
for  the  acquisition  and  retention  of  truth — why  else 
should  truth  and  human  intelligence  exist  ? Truth  and 
reason  are  correlative.  Clothed  in  all  the  ennobling 
virtues — then  only  does  the  intelligence  become  a part  of 
the  perfect  being. 

One  can  hardly  help  inquiring  whether  a one-sided 
training  in  the  so-called  “ humanities”  tends  to  form  the 
many-sided  philosopher  of  Plato.  By  the  oldest  and  best 
accepted  definition  of  culture,  that  education  which 
neglects  the  natural  sciences  does  not  confer  ••'magnifi- 
cence of  mind.” 

The  conception  of  culture  entertained  by  Dr.  Payne  is 
closely  akin  to  that  of  Plato — it  is  essentially  the  same. 
“The  main  elements  in  culture,”  he  says,  “are  catholic- 
ity or  comprehensiveness  of  mind,  and  emotion  tempered, 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE. 


59 


refined  and  subservient  to  the  intellect  and  the  will.”* 
Here,  also,  it  is  a state  of  mind  and  a regulation  of 
emotion  which  constitutes  culture.  Catholicity  of  mind 
cannot  grow  out  of  exclusiveness  of  knowledge  and 
narrowness  of  training.  Whatever  training  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  study  of  dead  languages  and  to  literatures, 
there  is  another  sort  of  training  which  comes  from  the 
study  of  the  natural  sciences ; if  there  were  not,  no 
controversy  over  the  relative  worth  of  studies  would  ever 
have  arisen.  If  then,  there  be  a kind  of  culture  not 
afforded  by  languages  and  literatures,  that  education 
which  ignores  or  even  neglects  it  is  not  a catholic  educa- 
tion. Their  own  mouths  thus  supply  the  criteria  which 
condemn  the  narrowness  of  an  education  exclusively 
“humanistic.”  For  me,  the  truth  is  expressed  by  M. 
Compayre  when  he  says,  “ These  two  ideas  ought  to 
complete  each  other,  and  not  to  exclude  each  other.  The 
ideal  of  education  consists  in  finding  a system  which  wel- 
comes both.”  f 

Of  the  specific  influence  of  literary  studies  let  us  permit 
M.  Compayre  to  speak  : “ Diderot  is  not  able  to  discern 

what,  in  pedagogy,  is  their  true  title  to  nobility — that 
they  are  an  admirable  instrument  of  intellectual  gym- 
nastics, and  the  surest  and  also  the  most  convenient 
means  of  acquiring  those  qualities  of  justness,  of  precision 
and  of  clearness  which  are  needed  by  all  conditions  of 
men,  and  are  applicable  to  all  the  special  employments  of 
life.”  % 

The  first  point  is  the  excellence  of  literary  studies  as 

* Payne : Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education , p.  58. 
t Compayrg : History  of  Pedagogy , Payne’s  tr.,  p.  408. 
t Com  pay  rO : History  of  Pedagogy , Payne’s  tr.,  pp.  324-5. 


60 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


means  of  intellectual  exercise.  Far  be  it  from  me  to 
dispute  the  position.  But  that  all  desirable  forms  of 
intellectual  exercise  are  afforded,  I think  few  would  be 
so  extravagant  as  to  claim.  Least  of  all  are  they  capable 
of  this  in  the  grades  of  grammatical  and  memorizing 
study  to  which  Latin  and  Greek  students  devote  the 
first  six  years  of  their  course.  Do  we  find  in  declensions 
any  training  of  the  faculties  of  observation  ? In  conjuga- 
tions, any  development  of  the  powers  of  induction  ? In 
syntax,  any  excitement  and  warming  of  the  imagination  ? 
In  prosody,  any  gymnastic  of  the  powers  of  deductive 
reasoning  ? The  dead  languages  are  not  such  a gym- 
nastic as  to  justify  their  appropriation  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  learner’s  time  and  efforts  during  eight 
formative  years. 

But  they  are  the  surest  and  most  convenient  means, 
continues  M.  Compayre,  of  acquiring  certain  qualities  of 
mind  in  demand  among  men  of  all  conditions  and  employ- 
ments. This,  so  far  as  I can  perceive,  is  a simple  begging 
of  the  question.  Whether  they  are  or  not,  is  the  question 
at  issue.  What  is  the  evidence  that  they  are  the  surest 
means  ? To  render  the  truth  of  the  proposition  evident, 
it  must  be  made  to  appear,  1st.  That  they  secure  all  the 
qualities  of  mind  and  forms  of  knowledge  demanded  by 
different  classes  and  conditions  of  men ; 2d.  That  other 
studies  may  not  also  afford  the  same  or  similar  results ; 
3d.  That  other  studies  cannot  afford  desirable  results 
not  attainable  by  exclusive  humanistic  study.  Examined 
in  these  three  respects  I think  it  may  be  made  to  appear 
that  such  studies  are  not  authorized  to  set  up  so  large  and 
so  exclusive  a claim. 

Neither  will  it  appear  that  they  are  “the  most  con- 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE. 


61 


venient  means  ” for  securing  desirable  qualities  of  intellect. 
The  most  convenient  subjects  of  study  are  those  most 
accessible.  The  most  accessible  are  those  lying  all  around 
us ; which  we  begin  to  learn  something  of  in  infancy ; 
which  ever  obtrude  themselves  on  our  attention  and 
we  cannot  escape  from  ; which  we  walk  over,  handle 
and  use  every  day  of  our  lives ; which  require  no  books, 
no  tasks,  no  weariness,  no  confinement,  no  physical  stagna- 
tion, no  memory-cramming,  no  tears  and  no  birch.  Are 
not  such  subjects  also  the  most  appropriate  to  know 
something  about? 

The  most  discerning  and  philosophic  eulogy  of  linguis- 
tic studies  which  has  fallen  under  my  observation  is  that 
of  Marmontel.  “ The  choice  and  use  of  words,”  says 
he,  “in  translating  from  one  language  to  another,  and 
even  then  some  degree  of  elegance  in  the  construction 
of  sentences,  began  to  interest  me;  and  this  work,  which 
did  not  proceed  without  the  analysis  of  ideas,  fortified 
my  memory.  I perceived  that  it  was  the  idea  attached  to 
the  word  which  made  it  take  root,  and  reflection  soon 
made  me  feel  that  the  study  of  the  languages  was  also 
the  study  of  the  art  of  distinguishing  shades  of  thought, 
of  decomjiosing  it,  of  forming  its  texture,  and  of  catching 
with  precision  its  spirit  and  its  relations  ; and  that  along 
with  words,  an  equal  number  of  new  ideas  were  intro- 
duced and  developed  in  the  heads  of  the  young,  and 
in  this  way,  the  early  classes  were  a course  in  elementary 
philosophy,  much  more  rich,  more  extended  and  of 
greater  utility  than  we  think,  when  we  complain  that  in 
our  colleges  nothing  is  learned  but  Latin.”  * 

* Marmontel:  M&moires  d'un  pere  pour  servir  a l'  instruction  de  ses 

enfants , tome  I.,  p.  19. 


62 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


In  this  work  we  discover,  undoubtedly,  a severe  gym- 
nastic in  the  analysis  of  concepts  and  the  comparison  and 
discrimination  of  closely  related  shades  of  thought.  We 
have  not  only  to  seek  the  rendering  of  words  in  isolation; 
we  have  to  discern  the  nature  of  their  co-ordination 
and  give  a rendering  of  the  collocation.  We  must 
appreciate  the  coloring  imparted  by  mood  and  tense, 
by  choice  of  particles,  by  connectives  and  disjunctives, 
and  by  the  particular  selection  of  disjunctives  and  con- 
nectives embodied  in  the  sentence.  Then,  having 
eliminated  the  thought  of  the  author,  and  fairly  dis- 
cerned the  shades  and  colorings  which  he  has  given 
it,  we  are  required  to  repeat  the  process  of  discrimi- 
nations and  weighings  in  selecting  the  terms  of  another 
language  which  will  most  exactly  reproduce  them.  Here 
undoubtedly,  with  discipline  of  the  powers  of  abstrac- 
tion, comparison  and  analysis,  is  found  a discipline 
which  creates  mastery  of  vocabularies  and  the  art  of 
expression.  It  is  quite  possible  that  a severe  discipline 
of  just  this  kind  is  not  afforded  by  any  other  intellec- 
tual work,  unless  it  be  in  the  field  of  metaphysics. 

At  the  same  time,  a few  observations  ought  to  be  made. 
In  the  first  place,  this  exercise  is  furnished  by  the  work 
of  translation,  not  translation  from  a dead  language.  It 
cannot  be  said  that  living  languages  possess  an  inferior 
disciplinary  value,  as  far  as  such  value  consists  in  the 
transference  of  thought  from  language  to  language — and 
this  is  the  only  value  deemed  worthy  of  mention  by 
Marmontel.  Secondly,  the  exercise  is  not  a purely 
linguistic  one  ; it  deals  with  thoughts  as  well  as  language, 
and  the  acuteness  of  discrimination  required  may  be  to 
some  extent,  an  incident  of  the  author’s  style  or  theme, 


CLASSICS  A2STD  CULTURE. 


63 


such  as  would  be  present  if  addressed  to  us  in  the  vernac- 
ular. Third,  the  essential  disciplinary  exercise  of  trans- 
lation has  no  dependence  on  the  subject-matter.  We  may 
select  then,  such  subject-matter  as  affords  us  valuable 
information.  We  need  not  perplex  our  minds  with  vapid 
treatises  or  pointless  comedies.  We  may  even  translate 
works  on  geology  or  biology.  Fourth,  I have  heretofore 
claimed  for  geology,  the  power  of  discipline  in  abstraction, 
analysis  and  comparison.  In  the  discrimination  of  unlike 
objects  which  possess  a superficial  resemblance ; in  the 
identification  of  things  superficially  unlike ; in  the  deter- 
mination of  homogeneous  groups  of  facts  to  serve  as  bases 
of  inductions  ; in  weighing  the  influences  of  a known 
environment  on  organism  and  habit ; in  divining  an 
unknown  environment  from  the  observed  features  of  the 
organism  ; in  considering  the  mutual  play  and  balance  of 
vital  and  physical  forces ; in  properly  discriminating  the 
evidences  presented  by  the  material  and  the  immaterial ; in 
thousands  of  ways,  the  exigencies  of  geological  thought 
elicit  into  activity  the  most  effective  powers  of  penetration 
and  discrimination,  and  train  them  to  readiness  and 
alertness. 

M.  Renan  presents  a view  of  culture  which  contrasts  it 
very  justly  with  the  utilitarian  aim  of  Spencer.  “ The 
reasoning  that  I oppose,”  he  says,  “starts  from  the 
low  and  false  assumption  that  instruction  serves  only 
for  the  practical  use  that  is  made  of  it;  for  example, 
that  he  who  by  his  social  position  does  not  make  use 
of  his  intellectual  culture,  lias  no  need  of  that  culture. 
Literature,  from  this  point  of  view,  is  useful  only  to 
the  man  of  letters,  science  only  to  the  scientist,  good 
manners  and  fine  bearing  only  to  men  of  the  world. 


64 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


The  poor  man  should  be  ignorant,  for  education  and 
knowledge  are  useless  to  him.  Blasphemy,  gentlemen! 
The  culture  of  the  mind  and  the  culture  of  the  soul 
are  duties  for  every  man.  They  are  not  simple  orna- 
ments; they  are  things  as  sacred  as  religion.’’* 

As  a rebuff  to  the  exclusive  utilitarian  aim  of  some 
modern  theorists,  this  is  well;  but  is  far  from  any  over- 
throw of  the  doctrines  that  in  the  search  for  cultural 
studies  we  should  select  such  as  will  yield  valuable  infor- 
mation as  well  as  culture;  that  it  is  not  wise  to  spend  all 
the  best  years  of  tutelage  in  the  pursuit  of  studies  ivhich 
are  merely  cultural,  since  the  average  citizen  has  as  much 
need  of  knowledge  as  of  culture,  and  the  majority  of 
parents,  whatever  may  be  best  for  the  citizen,  and  for 
humanity,  put  their  children  in  school  for  the  sake 
of  knowledge,  and  do  not  care  to  buy  culture  except 
as  an  incident  in  the  attainment  of  it. 

One  of  the  most  just  and  intelligent  of  the  reorganizers 
of  public  instruction  during  the  stormy  times  of  the 
“Convention”  was  Lakanal.  He  wished,  like  Bacon,  a 
new  installation  of  scientific  thought  and  method,  but 
was  liberal  enough  to  record  the  following  estimate  of 
literary  culture:  “For  a long  time  we  have  neglected 

the  belles  lettres,  and  some  men  who  wish  to  be  consid- 
ered profound  regard  this  study  as  useless.  It  is  letters, 
however,  which  open  the  intelligence  to  the  light  of  rea- 
son, and  the  heart  to  the  impressions  of  sentiment.  They 
substitute  morality  for  interest,  give  pupils  polish,  exer- 
cise their  judgment,  make  them  more  sensitive  and  at  the 

* lltMian : Famille  et  etat,  p.  3.  These  glowing  words  are  not  irreconcil- 
able with  M.  Renan's  statement,  that  it  is  the  regret  of  his  life  that  he 
did  not  himself  originally  pursue  the  natural  sciences,  in  which  he  might 
have  forestalled  Darwin  in  his  discoveries. 


CLASSICS  AISTD  CULTURE. 


65 


same  time,  more  obedient  to  the  laws,  more  callable  of 
grand  virtues.”* 

It  may  be  ungenerous  to  betray  dissatisfaction  with 
such  concessions,  because  the  spirit  and  view  which 
prompted  them  seem  to  be  equitable  and  wise.  It  is  only 
because  the  thought  is  not  couched  in  phrase  which  ren- 
ders the  concession  intelligible,  and  therefore  of  value, 
that  I desire  to  offer  a critical  remark.  The  language, 
like  much  that  has  been  used  in  praise  of  literature,  is 
vague  and  declamatory.  When  one  wishes  to  find  pre- 
cisely what  it  is  that  literary  studies  are  good  for,  he  finds 
either  an  empty  phrase  or  a quality  which  belongs  as  well 
to  scientific  study  as  to  literary.  To  claim  that  “it  is 
letters  that  open  the  intelligence  to  the  light  of  reason  ” 
strikes  us  as  a sort  of  cant.  If  letters  dealt  with  themes 
chiefly  on  rational  grounds  ; if  letters  discussed  questions 
lying  within  the  philosophic  field  ; if  letters  concerned 
themselves  chiefly  with  principles  or  doctrines,  in  distinc- 
tion from  personal  happenings,  trivial  sentiments,  empty 
talk,  smart  phrases,  verbal  paddings,  homoeopathic  dilu- 
tions of  thought,  it  might  be  boasted  that  “it  is  letters 
that  open  the  intelligence  to  the  light  of  reason.”  If  the 
guild  of  letters  would  employ  their  pens  on  the  great 
themes  of  the  world  and  the  heavens — the  harmonies  and 
interactions  of  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature,  the  unity 
of  the  cosmos,  the  epic  of  creation  and  the  drama  of  life, 
we  should  undoubtedly  receive  contributions  to  literature 
which  would  “open  the  intelligence  to  the  light  of  rea- 
son.” But  still  the  salutary  influence  of  letters  on  the 
intelligence  is  sufficiently  obvious.  They  “open  the  heart 
to  the  impressions  of  sentiment,”  and  disclose  motives  for 

* Quoted  from  Compayr6 : History  of  Pedagogy , p.  404. 


66 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


action  along  avenues  of  life  before  undiscovered.  They 
make  pupils  more  sensitive,  more  sympathetic,  more 
humanistic.  They  disclose  man’s  relations  to  man,  and 
suggest  duty,  mutual  dependence,  and  all  the  altruistic 
beauties  and  amenities  of  society.  As  to  making  men 
“ more  obedient  to  the  laws  ” or  “ more  capable  of  grand 
virtues” — that  depends  on  the  complexion  of  the  moral 
teaching  afforded.  As  far  as  I can  discern,  any  form  of 
enlightenment  which  shall  preoccupy  the  mind  with 
agreeable  thoughts  and  employ  them  in  innocent  reading 
will  serve  most  effectually  to  preserve  from  law-breaking 
and  immorality.  But  this  is  a principle  which  serves 
more  than  literature. 

It  would  scarcely  be  decorous  to  conclude  these  citations 
from  the  authorities  on  the  nature  and  uses  of  culture, 
without  turning  a moment’s  attention  to  the  “ apostle  of 
culture.”  The  encroachments  of  modern  science  on  the 
traditional  preserves  of  “the  humanities”  embittered  the 
soul  of  Matthew  Arnold,  and  bore  him  on  journeyings  to 
foreign  lands  with  aims  which  partook  somewhat  of  a 
missionary  character.  His  repinings  bore  the  mingled 
tinge  of  melancholy  and  despair.  In  an  address  delivered 
at  Cambridge,  England,*  referring  to  plaints  uttered  ten 
years  previously,  he  said  : “To  deprive  letters  of  the  too 

great  place  they  have  hitherto  filled  iu  men’s  estimation, 
and  to  substitute  other  studies  for  them,  was  now  the 
object,  I observed,  of  a sort  of  crusade  with  the  friends 
of  physical  science.  * * * I could  not  help  being 
moved  with  a desire  to  plead  with  the  friends  of  physical 
science  on  behalf  of  letters,  and  in  deprecation  of 
the  slight  which  they  put  upon  them.  * * * Ten 

* Published  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  for  August,  1883,  pp.  216-330. 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE.  67 

years  have  past,  and  the  prospects  of  any  pleader  for  letters 
have  certainly  not  mended.  If  the  friends  of  physical 
science  were  in  the  morning  sunshine  of  popular  favor 
even  then,  they  stand  now  in  its  meridian  radiance.  Sir 
Josiah  Mason  founds  a college  at  Birmingham  to  exclude 
‘ mere  literary  instruction  and  education’ ; and  at  its 
opening,  a brilliant  and  charming  debater.  Professor 
Huxley,  is  brought  down  to  pironounce  their  funeral 
oration.”  Mr.  Arnold  cannot  in  form  complain  of  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  to  be  made  at  Mason  College. 
He  says  : “ We  must  all  admit  that  in  natural  science  the 
habit  gained  of  dealing  with  facts  is  a most  valuable 
discipline,  and  every  one  should  have  some  experience  of 
it.”  I have  emphasized  this  last  apostolic  utterance  on 
my  own  responsibility.  Of  that  discipline  I shall  spieak 
hereafter.  He  says  further  : “ The  great  results  of  the 

scientific  investigation  of  nature  toe  are  agreed  upon 
Tcnoioing.”  If  scientific  study  were  solely  for  acquisitions 
of  knowledge,  the  general  results  would  suffice  ; but  since 
it  ought  to  be  largely  also,  for  pmrpioses  of  discipline,  we 
are  also  bound  to  give  some  attention  to  the  “processes 
by  which  those  results  are  reached.”  Why  then  is  Mr. 
Arnold  repining  ? Because,  “ it  is  knowledge  only  which 
they  give  us  ; knowledge  not  put  up  for  us  into  relation 
with  our  sense  for  conduct,  our  sense  for  beauty,  and 
touched  with  emotion  by  being  so  pmt ; not  thus  put  for 
us,  and  therefore  to  the  majority  of  mankind,  after  a 
certain  while  unsatisfying,  wearying.”  It  is  my  opinion 
that  any  writer  of  pffiilosopihic  mind  and  adequate  culture, 
with  a great  losing  cause  on  his  heart,  and  a depth  of 
earnestness  to  animate  him,  should  find  some  better  way 
of  arresting  attention  than  oddity  of  phrase,  and  should 


68 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


have  some  weightier  considerations  than  the  allegation 
that  the  truths  of  science  “are  not  put  up  into  relation 
with  our  sense  for  conduct,  our  sense  for  beauty,  and 
touched  with  emotion.”  If  I were  convinced  that  Mr. 
Arnold’s  popularity  as  the  apostle  of  culture  rested  on  a 
substantial  basis  of  philosophic  good  sense,  rather  than 
assumptions  and  phrases,  I might  be  allured  into  the 
peril  of  pausing  to  subject  the  above  phrases  to  critical — 
admiration. 

After  Mr.  Arnold’s  admissions  of  the  value  of  science, 
and  the  necessity  of  our  all  learning  at  least  its  great 
results,  I see  no  yawning  chasm  between  him  and  the 
founder  of  Mason  College.  For  it  is  not  true  that  Sir 
Josiah  Mason  proposes  to  exclude  literary  education  and 
instruction,  but  only  “ mere  literary  instruction,”  “ which 
has  literature  as  its  sole  objective  end.”  Nor  did  Professor 
Huxley  attend  the  founding  in  the  capacity  of  a funeral 
orator  at  the  burial  of  the  humanities.  “ I am  the  last 
person,”  he  said,  “to  cprestion  the  importance  of  genuine 
literary  education,  or  to  suppose  that  intellectual  culture 
can  be  complete  without  it.  An  exclusively  scientific 
training  will  bring  about  a mental  twist  as  surely  as 
an  exclusively  literary  training.”  And  Professor  Huxley 
in  referring  to  the  provision  made  in  the  college  for 
instruction  in  English,  French  and  German,  reminded 
his  auditors  that  this  rendered  accessible  “the  three 
greatest  literatures  of  the  modern  world,”  and  expressed 
his  conviction  that  “if  an  Englishman  cannot  get  his 
literary  culture  out  of  his  bible,  his  Shakespeare  and  his 
Milton,  neither  will  the  profoundest  study  of  Homer  and 
Sophocles,  Virgil  and  Horace,  give  it  to  him.” 

The  most  recent  plea  for  Greek  and  Latin  studies 


CLASSICS  AND  CULTURE. 


69 


comes  to  my  hands  while  this  discussion  is  in  progress. 
In  an  elegant  address  delivered  in  July,  1888,  before  the 
University  Convocation  at  Albany,  Honorable  D.  H. 
Chamberlain  defended  “ Greek  and  Latin  as  the  best 
means  of  the  best  education  to-day.”  Mr.  Chamberlain  is 
an  irreclaimable  devotee  of  Greek.  “The  study  of  Greek 
and  Latin,”  he  says,  “ ought  to  considered  fundamental 
to  a liberal  education — fundamental  in  the  disciplinary 
training  which  precedes  entrance  on  the  active,  responsible 
work  of  life.”  * * * “An  acquaintance  with  Greek 

literature,  through  a knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  is, 
and  must  be,  whether  required  by  schools  and  colleges 
or  not,  an  indispensable  means  for  laying  the  founda- 
tion of  the  broadest  culture,  the  most  useful  and  effective 
mental  training.”  * * * “ There  is  in  my  judgment, 

no  study  so  valuable,  so  exactly  adapted  as  a preparation 
for  the  work  to  be  done  in  public  or  private  life,  here  in 
America  to-day,  as  the  study  of  the  Greek  language  and 
literature  ; and  I have  the  conviction  that  this  study  is, 
and  will  be,  whether  it  remain  a part  of  our  prescribed 
courses  or  not,  the  real  basis  and  test  of  culture,  of  that 
mental  training  and  equipment  which  distinguishes  the 
educated  from  the  uneducated  or  partly  educated.” 

I quote  these  passages  both  to  make  known  clearly 
the  speaker’s  position,  and  illustrate  the  engrossing  and 
preposterous  claims  set  up  for  dead  languages  as  the 
essentials  of  all  education  worthy  to  be  called  liberal.* 

*In  an  identical  strain  proceeds  Mr.  Lowell — worthy  of  all  the  fame  he 
enjoys — in  his  address  at  the  commemoration  of  Harvard's  two  hundred  and 
fiftieth  anniversary.  lie  is  speaking  of  the  “weightier  matters  of  a lan- 
guage" which  “ have  overcome  death  by  reason  of  their  wisdom  ’’ — meaning, 
to  come  to  the  point,  Greek  aud  Latin.  “ I hope  the  day  may  never  come,”  he 
says,  “ when  these  are  not  predominant  in  the  teaching  given  here.  Let  the 


70 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


In  support  of  his  claims,  Mr.  Chamberlain  has  made  an 
ingenious  and  interesting  plea.  One  joins  in  sympathy 
with  a mind  at  once  so  earnest  in  its  extravagance  and  so 
candid  in  its  sophistry.  The  spirit  converts  us,  but  the 
logic  makes  us  apostates.  He  begins  with  quotations  from 
Lowell,  who  reminds  us  of  Marmontel  in  saying  : “ Even 
for  the  mastery  of  our  own  tongue,  there  is  no  expedient  so 
fruitful  as  translation  out  of  another.”  This  thought 
embodies  a valuable  truth,  on  which  I have  already 
commented.  But  when  Mr.  Lowell  adds  : “ How  much 

more  when  that  other  is  a language  at  once  so  precise  and 
so  flexible  as  the  Greek ! ” one  has  to  pause  to  discover 
the  logical  consecutiveness  binding  the  two  thoughts 
together.  So  far  as  I can  see,  the  exercise  in  the  vernac- 
ular is  the  same  whether  it  re-embodies  thoughts  taken 
out  of  a comely  linguistic  corpse  or  an  uncouth  one,  or 
even  out  of  a linguistic  organism  still  living.  Mr.  Lowell, 
as  here  quoted,  understands  the  traditional  expedient  of 
concealing  the  real  point  at  issue  by  telling  us  that  many 
of  the  greatest  minds  of  the  past  “since  the  revival  of 
learning  have  been  steeped  in,  and  saturated  with  Greek 
literature.”  This  is  well  understood ; and  they  gave 
themselves  to  Greek  because  that  was  the  scholastic 
fashion,  and  because  there  was  far  less  reason  than  in 
these  days  to  lay  the  dusty  vellums  on  the  upper  shelves, 
and  dip  into  the  fresh  clean  pages  of  modern  thought. 
But  the  question  with  us  is  not  howColeridge  and  Cudwortli 
and  the  English  Platonists  spent  their  days,  but  whether 
reason  can  be  given  intelligibly  and  philosophically  for 

humanities  be  maintained  undiminished  in  their  ancient  right.  Leave  in  their 
traditional  ■pre-eminence  those  arts  that  were  rightly  called  liberal."  If  the 
devotees  of  dead  languages  would  be  content  to  leave  half  the  earth  to  living 
truth,  undoubtedly  a compact  of  peace  might  be  signed. 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


71 


shoving  natural  sciences  aside  and  putting  Greek  at  the 
foundation  of  all  possible  liberal  culture. 

Mr.  Chamberlain  in  reaching  the  affirmative  portion 
of  his  argument,  makes  the  assumption  that  “college 
studies  should  have  for  their  chief  end  and  controlling 
object,  the  training,  discipline,  education  of  the  mental 
faculties.”  There  is  a beautiful  theory  that  colleges 
are  founded  for  such  a purpose,  and  the  pendent  of 
the  theory  is  that  the  discipline  which  Greek  and  Latin 
carry  on  in  college  must  be  begun  with  Greek  and  Latin 
four  years  before  entrance  in  college.  This  beautiful  and 
“scholarly”  theory  has  done  very  much  to  depopulate 
our  colleges,  and  bring  collegiate  culture  into  disrepute. 
However  it  may  be  suited  to  leisure  and  wealth,  it  is  not 
suited  to  American  life.  We  found  colleges  to  serve 
as  fountains  of  knowledge  as  well  as  agencies  of  culture; 
and  since  it  is  possible  to  have  both,  it  is  mere  affecta- 
tion to  pretend  that  knowledge  would  disgrace  culture  by 
its  company.  Unless  we  are  seeking,  like  Mr.  Chamber- 
lain,  * to  avoid  knowledge,  we  shall  not  be  content  to 
spend  time  and  fortune  on  Greek, — even  if  Greek  is 
as  cultural  as  painted. 

With  this  untenable  principle  as  a corner  stone,  Mr. 
Chamberlain  proceeds  to  prove  that  no  means  of  culture 
is  as  effective  as  languages,  and  that  of  all  languages 
Greek  is  the  most  perfect ; ergo,  Greek  ought  to  hold  the 
supreme  place  in  collegiate  education. 

Let  us  learn  vvhy  languages  are  the  most  efficient 
instruments  of  culture.  “ Language  is  the  universal 
medium  of  thought ; the  chief,  almost  the  only  vehicle  by 

* And  like  the  Mathematical  Society  of  London,  tvhose  toast  is  said  to 
have  been  “Pure  mathematics,  may  it  never  be  of  use  to  any  man.” 


72 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


which  thought  in  all  its  forms  is,  or  can  be  communi- 
cated. In  a strict  and  very  high  sense,  language  is 
thought.  Reason,  reflection,  emotion — all  the  highest 
powers  of  human  nature — must  seek  language  for  expres- 
sion and  for  influence  on  men.”  This  being  so,  “the 
study  of  language — its  nature,  its  structure,  its  uses, 
its  capacities,  its  highest  manifestations,  its  noblest  and 
most  powerful  forms — is  necessarily  the  first  and  highest 
instrumentality  for  developing,  training,  education  of 
the  mental-  powers ; absolute  in  its  necessity,  first  in 
order  of  time,  highest  in  the  scale  of  importance.” 

Whatever  the  validity  of  this  reasoning,  the  argument 
appears  to  be  incomplete.  Language  is  not  the  sole 
vehicle  for  the  conveyance  of  thought.  It  is  one  of 
the  vehicles.  Sound  is  another  vehicle.  Without  the 
intervention  of  sound,  the  existence  of  spoken  language 
would  be  nugatory— it  would  be  an  impossibility.  Light 
is  another  vehicle.  Without  the  intervention  of  light, 
written  language  would  be  nugatory — it  would  be  an 
impossibility.  The  auditory  organ  is  a vehicle  for  the 
transmission  of  thought  borne  by  spoken  language. 
Without  the  hearing  ear,  spoken  language  would  be 
nugatory — it  would  be  an  impossibility.  The  visual 
organ  is  another  vehicle.  Without  the  seeing  eye,  the 
existence  of  written  language  would  be  nugatory — it 
would  be  an  impossibility.  In  the  conveyance  of  thought, 
language  is  no  more  essential  than  sound  and  light,  the 
ear  and  eye.  The  nature  of  sound  and  light  is  some- 
thing as  worthy  of  admiration  as  the  nature  of  language. 
The  pulsations  of  the  media  are  marvelous  beyond  com- 
parison. The  physical  principles  of  acoustics  and  optics 
yield  themselves  to  profound  mathematical  investigation. 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


73 


And  so  tlie  structures  of  the  ear  and  eye  are  admirable 
and  perfect  beyond  all  comparison  with  human  devices. 
These  are  indispensable  media  and  means  for  the  trans- 
mission of  thought  by  language. 

We  may  therefore  supplement  Mr.  Chamberlain’s  argu- 
ment in  a manner  somewhat  as  follows  : Sound  and 

light  and  senses  for  audition  and  vision  are  also  universal 
media  of  thought ; the  chief,  almost  the  only  vehicles  by 
which  thought  in  all  its  forms  is,  or  can  be  communi- 
cated. In  a strict  and  very  high  sense,  sound  and  light, 
ear  and  eye  are  thought.  Reason,  reflection,  emotion — 
all  the  highest  powers  of  human  nature  must  seek  sound 
and  light,  ear  and  eye,  for  expression  and  for  influence  on 
men.  This  being  so,  the  study  of  sound  and  light,  ear 
and  eye,  their  structure,  their  uses,  their  capacities,  their 
laws  and  modes  of  action,  their  capabilities,  their  highest 
and  most  marvelous  manifestations,  their  noblest  adapta- 
tions, their  most  exquisite  and  beautiful  revelations — 
is  necessarily  the  first  and  highest  instrumentality  for 
developing,  training,  educating  the  mental  powers  ; abso- 
lute in  its  necessity,  first  in  order  of  time,  highest  in  the 
scale  of  importance.  I see  no  reason  why  the  whole 
of  the  argument  is  not  as  good  as  a part  of  it. 

But  on  what  ground  does  the  validity  of  the  argument 
rest  ? Because  language  is  the  vehicle  of  thought,  we 
must  hold  in  highest  esteem  the  study  of  language — 
its  nature,  its  structure,  its  uses,  its  capacities,  its  highest 
manifestations,  its  noblest  and  most  powerful  forms — 
that  is,  concisely,  grammar  [including,  it  may  be  sup- 
posed, philology  and  rhetoric]  and  literature  [if  it  does 
not  convey  scientific  truth] . That  language  and  litera- 
ture deserve  very  considerate  study  I do  not  deny.  That 


74 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


grammar — which  embodies  the  elementary  facts  and  laws 
of  language — is  the  most  appropriate  study  for  a child, 
must  be  denied,  since  as  elsewhere  more  fully  stated, 
it  demands  faculties  not  developed  in  the  child,  and 
neglects  the  faculties  which  are  developed.  Grammar 
and  all  abstract  study  of  language  belong  to  dawning  and 
completed  maturity.  Childhood  is  adapted  chiefly  to 
language  inductively  presented. 

If  we  take  the  “completion”  of  the  argument  and 
examine  its  validity,  we  perceive  at  once,  that  there 
is  much  in  sound  and  light,  ear  and  eye,  which  adapts 
them  to  the  grade  of  childhood  and  youthful  studies. 
Mr.  Chamberlain  may  feel  pleased  at  the  unexpected 
application  of  his  reasoning. 

But  even  with  language-study  established  as  first  in 
order  and  highest  in  importance,  is  Greek  the  most  useful 
representative  of  linguistic  study  ? Mr.  Chamberlain 
says,  yes  ; and  these  are  his  reasons  : 

1.  The  fact  that  it  is  no  longer  spoken  is  immaterial, 
since  the  knowledge  exists,  and  its  masterpieces  of  litera- 
ture still  survive. 

2.  In  all  times  past,  “the  Greek  language  has  been 
regarded  as  the  most  perfect  form  of  human  speech,  and 
its  study  has  been  regarded  as  the  best  means  of  intellec- 
tual training.” 

3.  The  superiority  of  the  Greek  language  consists  in 
(1)  The  fact  that  it  is  ancient — “the  mold  and  form 
which  reason  and  the  spirit  of  freedom  first  took  : ” (2) 
the  fact  that  it  was  a growth  “which  in  the  main,  and 
to  a degree  greater  than  in  any  other,  was  natural  and 
regular,  according  to  the  genius  and  spirit  of  one  peo- 
ple;” (3)  “Its  structure  and  vocabulary  became  to  the 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTUKE. 


75 


highest  degree  artistic,  flexible  and  rich ; ” (4)  The 
development  of  the  language  into  the  Greek  literature. 

I think  these  reasons  are  well  considered  and  weighty ; 
and  I need  not  state  here  any  point  of  dissent.  If  then, 
culture  were  the  exclusive  or  chief  end  of  education 
[which  it  is  not]  ; and  if  the  study  of  language  were  the 
best  means  of  culture  [which  it  is  not],  then  Greek,  being 
a highly  perfect  language,  would  constitute  the  most 
appropriate  study  for  the  young.  But  since  American 
education  does  not  aim  solely  or  chiefly  at  culture,  and 
since  if  it  did,  language  is  not  best  suited  to  symmetrical 
training  of  all  the  mental  powers,  it  follows  that  Greek 
is  not  best  adapted  to  the  ends  of  American  education 
in  general. 

Mr.  Chamberlain’s  further  reasons  for  pronouncing 
Greek  the  most  useful  representative  of  linguistic  study 
relate  to  the  literature.  He  acknowledges  that  “the 
materials  of  modern  literature  are  incomparably  richer, 
the  results  of  modern  thought  are  immeasurably  more 
valuable  and  beneficent ; ” but  we  should  study  Greek 
literature  because  of  its  consummate  and  artistic  embodi- 
ment of  all  which  was  then  known  or  had  been  thought 
out.  This  literature  should  be  read  in  the  original, 
he  thinks,  since  no  translation  can  carry  with  it  that 
finish  which  is  imparted  by  the  language  itself. 

While  education  and  instinct  incline  me  toward  Mr. 
Chamberlain’s  views,  and  led  me  formerly  to  give  such 
views  endorsement,  I have  to  acknowledge  that  experi- 
ence and  reflection  have  lighted  me  to  other  conclusions. 

1.  The  study  of  Greek  literature  as  literature  is  work  . 
belonging  to  the  maturity  of  life,  and  a life  of  leisure  at 
its  maturity.  But  the  discussion  here  is  in  reference  to 


76 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


the  most  suitable  study  for  youths  from  ten  to  twenty 
years  of  age.  We  cannot  afford  to  compromise  all  the 
earlier  years  for  the  sake  of  being  prepared  to  critically 
appreciate  Greek  literature  at  twenty-fire  or  forty.  2.  If 
the  content  of  Greek  literature  possesses  value,  it  may 
be  found  embodied  in  good  translations.  If  these  are 
not  quite  up  to  the  original,  the  difference  is  not  large 
enough  to  justify  the  expenditure  of  half  the  period 
of  youth  in  purchasing  it,  3.  The  content  of  Greek 
literature  is  important  chiefly  as  noting  the  drift  of 
human  thought  among  people  remote  in  time  and  place. 
The  study  of  it  is  fruitful  in  philosophic  and  philologic 
investigations.  4.  For  these  special  advantages  it  is 
asking  too  much  to  turn  all  our  schools  into  nurseries  of 
Greek  scholars.  Modern  civilization  cannot  afford  the 
cost.  American  citizenship  demands  an  education  less 
dreamy,  less  languid,  more  vigorous,  more  versatile,  bet- 
ter suited  to  grapple  with  the  questions*  of  the  modern 
age.  We  feel  inclined  to  aver  with  Montaigne:  “Ko 

doubt  that  Greek  and  Latin  are  very  great  ornaments  and 
of  very  great  use,  hut  we  buy  them  too  dear.”* 

After  due  consideration  of  the  views  cited  in  the 
preceding  pages  from  the  best  authorized  representatives 
of  “ culture  ; ” after  listening  to  the  echoes  and  re-echoes 
of  the  phrases  of  the  apostles  of  culture  from  the  lips  of  its 
minor  representatives,  I fail  to  be  persuaded  that  literary 
studies  are  possessed  of  any  such  specialties  of  disciplinary 

* Montaigne:  Essays,  Bk.  i,  ch.  xxv. 

Among  the  uses  of  Latin  and  Greek  are  their  contributions  to  scientific 
terminology.  Thus  in  the  acquisition  of  natural  science,  the  classical 
student  possesses  an  advantage  over  the  non-classical  one.  But  I am  per- 
suaded that  all  the  Latin  and  Greek  which  is  specially  available  in  scientific 
study  can  be  acquired  at  vastly  less  cost  than  six  or  eight  years  of  the  plastic 
period  of  youth. 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


7 


efficiency  as  to  justify  us  in  permitting  them  to  engross 
the  attention  of  any  student  in  any  grade  of  general 
education,  to  the  exclusion  of  studies  belonging  to  the 
order  best  represented  by  geology.  I hold  this  conclusion 
with  such  candor  and  freedom  from  bias,  that  I believe 
every  one  similarly  prepared  to  judge  will  acquiesce  in 
opinion.  Without  the  disposition  to  depreciate  the  real 
value  of  literary  study ; without  any  desire  to  establish  a 
system  of  education  from  which  literary  studies  shall  be 
excluded;  with  an  honest  desire  that  the  “ humanities  ” 
may  continue  to  humanize,  and  even  Greek,  and  Latin 
continue  to  be  honored  by  such  devotees  as  can  discover 
the  time,  means  and  motive  for  their  study,  I am  still 
compelled  to  think  that  the  greater  part  of  the  clamor 
raised  in  behalf  of  literary  studies  is  mere  cant  and 
sound,  exerting  only  an  influence  repellent  rather  than 
conciliatory  to  thoughtful,  critical  minds.  This  reaction 
against  good  judgment  is  well  exemplified  in  a passage 
which  I will  quote  without  adoption,  but  which  has  in  it 
a sarcasm  to  which  truth  has  lent  a keen  edge. 

“According  to  the  special  culture-worshippers,  it  seems 
that  certain  things  must  be  done,  and  certain  other  things 
left  undone  to  entitle  to  entry  into  the  fold  of  culture. 
For  example,  above  all  things,  the  Latin  and  Greek  lan- 
guages and  literatures  must  be  mastered,  for  the  main 
object  in  life  must  be  to  make  and  understand  classical 
allusions,  and  there  can  be  no  more  grievous  sin  against 
culture,  or  more  glaring  evidence  of  want  thereof  than 
not  to  understand  every  innuendo  or  allusion  made  in 
polite  converse  which  spring  from  a classical  source  ; not 
only  ancient,  but  modern  poetry  must  be  read,  and  not 
only  read  but  enjoyed  [this  too  is  essential]  and  the 


78 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


principles  of  metric  composition  understood ; otherwise 
will  the  failing  individual  incur  the  charge  of  lack  of 
culture.”* 

The  outcome  of  this  examination  tends  to  make  it 
appear  that  the  controversy  between  the  advocates  of 
literary  and  of  scientific  studies  is  not  for  the  adoption  of 
either  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other.  There  are  theorists 
who  would  do  this.  But  the  best  representatives  of 
literary  study  admit  that  all  science,  in  its  general  results, 
ought  to  enter  into  general  education.  The  differences 
between  the  two  parties  may  be  condensed  into  a few 
statements.  1.  The  literary  party  insists  that  linguistic 
and  literary  studies  shall  hold  an  exclusive  place  in  early 
instruction ; and  they  deem  it  desirable  as  a rule,  that 
every  student  devote  four  to  six  preparatory  years  to  the 
study  of  dead  languages ; they  deny  that  any  liberal 
education  is  possible  without  such  sacrifice  to  dead 
languages  ; in  later  stages  of  education  they  put  foremost, 
and  most  generously  encourage,  studies  of  a literary 
character,  and  content  themselves  to  remain  in  ignorance 
of  scientific  truth,  scientific  culture,  and  scientific  habits 
of  mind.  2.  The  scientific  party  insists  that  observational 
activity  is  both  most  natural  and  most  useful  in  the  stages 
of  primary  education,  accompanied  by  such  activity  of 
the  inductive  powers  as  the  progress  of  mental  growth 
renders  spontaneous  and  jileasing  ; that  linguistic  studies 
may  be  appropriately  begun  in  early  years,  but  ought  not 
to  be  pushed  to  extreme  weariness,  nor  to  the  prejudice  of 
largo  devotion  to  the  data  of  natural  science ; that  Latin 
and  Greek  may  be  begun  in  early  years  by  a limited 
number  of  persons,  but  ought  not  to  be  pushed  to  the 

* Professor  Theodore  Gill,  American  Naturalist , June,  188S. 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


70 


impairment  of  due  devotion  to  observational  studies, 
nor  represented  as  indispensable  to  genuine  liberal 
culture ; that  preferably,  German  and  French  may  be 
taken  up  and  studied  in  an  inductive  way,  but  not  to  the 
prejudice  of  observational  studies ; that  in  the  middle  and 
later  stages  of  education  the  natural  sciences,  now  more 
systematically  pursued,  should  receive  encouragements, 
facilities  and  endowments  in  equitable  proportion  to  the 
favors  extended  to  literary  studies. 

This  is  perhaps  an  appropriate  place  to  offer  a remark 
on  the  allegation  often  made  that  students  in  scientific 
courses  in  college  are  conspicuously  inferior  in  culture 
and  polish  to  those  pursuing  the  classical  course.  It  is 
also  alleged  that  students  entering  non-classical  courses  at 
first,  manifest  a strong  tendency  to  work  into  the  classical 
course.  Such  statements  are  unjust  to  scientific  students, 
and  illogical  as  grounds  of  inference  disparaging  to 
scientific  education. 

“ The  Scientific  Course  ” was  established  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Michigan  by  act  of  the  legislature  passed  in 
1851.  This  appears  to  have  been  instigated  by  the  reports 
of  the  Board  of  Visitors  to  the  university,  presented  to 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  during  some 
years  previously.  It  was  shown  that  the  number  of 
students  in  the  university  was  diminishing  rather  than 
increasing,  and  the  Board  of  Visitors  were  of  the  opinion 
that  the  exclusive  classical  education  offered  did  not 
meet  the  wants  of  the  people.  The  legislature  enacted 
that  a course  should  be  established  by  the  Board  of 
Eegents,  to  which  candidates  should  be  admitted  without 
previous  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek.  This  was  before 
the  arrival  of  Dr.  Tappan  in  1853.  At  first  this  course 


80 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


and  the  preparation  for  it  consisted  of  the  studies  left 
after  the  removal  of  Latin  and  Greek  from  the  classical 
course,  and  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  mathematics 
and  modern  languages.  This  made  admission  compar- 
atively easy.  Not  more  than  a year  of  preparatory  study 
was  required.  For  the  classical  course  two  or  three 
years  were  required.  Finding  the  university  open  on 
terms  so  easy,  a large  number  of  young  men  applied  for 
admission ; and  the  scientific  course  for  a few  years 
promised  to  throw  the  classical  course  in  the  shade. 
Subsequently  the  linguistic  requirements  for  admission 
were  increased,  and  Latin  was  placed  on  the  same  footing 
as  German  and  French — any  two  of  these  being  required. 
The  introduction  of  somewhat  extensive  requirements 
in  linguistics  developed  again  an  articulate  demand  for  a 
course  of  science  and  English  letters,  and  the  so-called 
English  course  was  added.  To  this  entrance  was  made  as 
easy  as  to  the  original  scientific  course. 

The  state  of  the  facts  will  be  sufficiently  clear  without 
an  attempt  to  present  in  any  further  detail,  the  history  of 
non-classical  courses  in  the  university.  It  is  obvious  that 
when  admission  to  such  courses  was  made  so  easy,  many 
of  the  students  entering  them  would  be  lacking  in  polish, 
in  general  information,  in  habits  of  study  and  in  general 
cultural  preparation.  Young  men  reared  to  manual 
labor — farmers  and  mechanics,  would  discover  an  avenue 
open  for  gratifying  that  thirst  for  knowledge  which  till 
then  had  found  no  practicable  means  of  satisfaction.  Of 
course  they  came  often  with  little  polish  from  contact 
with  “good  society,”  but  with  vigorous  intellects,  and 
they  made  earnest  and  successful  students.  Of  course, 
with  minds  but  recently  turned  to  study  and  reading, 


GEOLOGY  AND  CULTURE. 


81 


their  general  information  was  not  diversified,  and  their 
adaptabilities  were  not  numerous.  Of  course,  with  but  a 
year  devoted  to  preparation — and  that  perhaps,  at  broken 
intervals  and  under  adverse  circumstances,  they  came 
without  the  habits  of  intellectual  life,  without  dexterity 
of  mind,  without  even  bodily  conditions  which  could  well 
endure  a life  of  sedentary  application.  These  are  the 
young  men  who  have  been  pointed  at  as  representatives 
of  the  culture  which  science  confers.  These  are  the 
students  who  have  been  set  over  against  the  classical 
student,  who,  reared  often  in  ease,  with  opportunities 
of  social  culture,  with  adequate  general  reading,  with 
four  years  of  thorough  special  preparation  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  have  arrived  at  the  university  with  scholarly 
habits  formed,  with  suppleness  of  intelligence,  self-confi- 
dence, familiarity  with  the  world,  and  with  a greeting 
of  sympathy  from  instructors  who  hail  him  as  on  the 
only  road  to  a true  liberal  education. 

Let  the  tables  be  turned.  Give  the  devotee  of  science 
ease,  leisure,  means,  society,  reading ; give  him  four 
or  six  years  of  preparation  in  the  elements  of  the  leading 
sciences ; give  him  German  and  French,  exercises  in 
English  composition  and  extemporaneous  sqieech ; but 
rear  the  candidate  for  classics  on  the  farm,  shut  him 
out  of  society,  clothe  him  in  homespun,  give  him  a year 
of  preparatory  study,  then  put  him  by  the  side  of  the 
well-disciplined  scientific  student  and  we  shall  see,  by 
parity  of  reasoning,  where  classics  place  a young  man 
on  the  ladder  of  cultural  scholarship. 

The  claim  that  science  does  not  make  students  equal 
to  those  reared  under  classical  influences  is  disingenuous, 
because  there  has  never  been  a proper  footing  for  a com- 


6 


82 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


parison.  The  claim  that  scientific  students  become  them- 
selves dissatisfied,  and  often  seek,  under  many  difficulties, 
to  effect  a change  to  the  classical  course  is  no  proof 
of  the  superiority  of  classical  studies,  but  rather  of  the 
superior  mental  drill  which  longer  preparation  has 
secured ; of  an  easier  relation  with  the  world,  conferred 
by  competence,  leisure,  society,  reading;  and  of  the 
controlling  inflrfence  exerted  by  the  dominant  literary 
interest  in  the  institution  where  science  is  still  struggling 
with  the  traditions  of  Jesuitism  and  the  rivalry  of  income- 
paying professional  schools. 


VII. 


THE  ETHICAL  INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL 
STUDY. 

I.  THE  ETHICAL  INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL 
CONCEPTIONS. 

TN  the  preceding  pages  I had  occasion  to  follow  out  a 
course  of  deductive  reasoning  from  the  generalization 
of  geologic  facts  which  presents  the  earth  as  a cooling 
body.  Such  process  of  reasoning,  I attempted  to  show, 
bears  our  thoughts  backwards  by  sure  steps,  over  the  past 
history  of  our  earth  to  conditions  so  remote  that  to  finite 
apprehension,  the  interval  is  practically  infinite.  By. 
means  of  accessory  generalizations  from  the  phenomena 
of  other  worlds,  the  entire  solar  system  was  revealed  before 
us  as  a process  of  world-evolution  on  a grander  scale. 
Of  this  the  evolution  of  our  earth  is  one  part.  So  it 
appears  that  one  method  has  dominated  in  the  formation 
of  an  entire  system  of  planets.  We  no  longer  conceive 
each  world  the  theatre  of  a special  system  of  world- 
making energies.  In  a still  higher  generalization  we  find 
the  countless  stars  of  the  firmament  other  suns  ; and 
from  this  discovery  proceed  securely  to  the  inference  that 
they  have  had  severally  histories  analogous  to  our  sun. 
Such  history  implies  a prolonged  career  of  annulation 
and  planetation,  and  a primordial  existence  in  the  condi- 
tion of  crude — perhaps  non-luminous — matter  gathering 
from  distant  realms  of  space  about  local  centres  of  gravi- 
tation. Such  a stage  of  inference  brings  us  to  a revelation 


83 


84 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


of  the  unity  of  the  mechanism  of  the  visible  universe, 
and  a unity  of  its  past  history. 

If,  turning  in  the  opposite  direction,  we  attempt  to 
trace  from  the  principle  of  a cooling  planet,  the  successive 
future  conditions  of  the  earth,  the  chain  of  causation 
carries  us  down  through  coming  ages,  which,  as  they 
stretch  before  us,  produce  on  the  mind  the  same  impres- 
sion as  the  intuition  of  infinite  time.  The  future  which 
scientific  deduction  compasses  is  practically  infinite.  We 
stand  then,  on  this  isthmus  between  the  two  eternities, 
and  attend  to  the  reflections  which  the  situation  arouses. 
With  the  gift  of  mental  vision  through  an  eternity  past 
and  an  eternity  future,  we  feel  ourselves  in  possession  of 
a qualified  omniscience.  We  gaze  down  the  avenues  of 
coming  events,  and  survey  the  unfolding  panorama.  But 
while  the  magnitude  of  the  events  oppresses  us ; while 
the  transforming  character  of  the  impending  changes 
strains  the  power  of  wonder  to  the  utmost  tension,  two 
reflections  deeply  absorb  us  : one  is  that  these  coming 
events  are  a true  prolongation  of  the  course  of  change 
which  has  brought  the  present  out  of  the  ancient  past, 
and  has  made  man  the  very  fruitage  of  unfolding  ages  ; 
the  other  is,  that  he  is  himself  a being  of  capacities 
unfathomed.  This  conscious,  thinking,  mysterious  self 
which  seems  so  puny  and  incidental  in  the  scheme  of 
physical  events  crashing  onward  with  the  power  of  mov- 
ing worlds,  is,  after  all,  the  only  feature  of  the  cosmos 
which  has  being  for  more  than  the  passing  moment — the 
only  phase  of  being  which  can  penetrate  the  realm  of  his- 
tories expired,  and  the  realm  of  histories  yet  unenacted. 
I am  sure  that  such  revelations  of  the  depth  and  capacity 
of  the  human  soul  not  only  widen  our  field  of  knowledge. 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS. 


85 


but  bring  us  into  a new  attitude  in  reference  to  ourselves. 
We  continue  the  search  for  truth  from  a new  point  of 
view.  We  glimpse  the  realm  of  insensible  things,  and 
find  in  ourselves  the  most  astonishing  adaptation  to  such 
a realm.  From  the  moment  when  we  discover  ourselves 
in  such  relations  to  the  cosmos,  we  feel  ourselves  under  a 
new  and  comforting  and  beneficent  ethical  influence. 

To  conceive  the  spaces  of  immensity  pervaded  by  a 
physical  system  coherent  in  all  its  parts,  bound  together 
by  one  body  of  laws,  pervaded  everywhere  by  cognate 
phenomena,  tending  in  every  province  of  space  in  the 
same  direction,  every  part  coming  out  of  antecedent 
conditions  everywhere  identical,  and  moving  onward 
toward  ulterior  conditions  also  identical,  each  part  and 
member  approaching  by  visible  signs,  the  same  ultimate 
destination,  to  grasp  once  this  eternity-spanning  and 
immensity-comprehending  harmony  of  being,  is  to  listen 
to  the  real  “ music  of  the  spheres,”  and  understand  it  in 
the  heart,  as  the  real  voice  of  one  God.  The  pathway  of 
geologic  inference  which  we  have  pursued  is  the  avenue 
opened  by  infinite  Beneficence,  through  which  matter- 
bound  intelligence  may  find  its  way  out  of  its  prison- 
house  to  a revelation  of  its  spiritual  self,  and  a highest 
human  apprehension  of  a spiritual  power  whose  sceptre 
reaches  all  conceivable  existence.  * 

I cannot  divest  myself  of  the  conviction  that  such  an 
outcome  of  geological  study  is  legitimate  and  real.  My 
thought  has  ranged  unnumbered  times  from  premises  to 
conclusion,  with  ever  freshened  assurance  and  ever  exalted 
satisfaction.  I cannot  discern  that  the  study  of  the  forms 

*“  In  the  whole  range  of  science  we  cannot  find  such  fuel  to  kindle  the 
flame  of  devotion,  as  a live  coal  from  the  altar  of  geology.”—  President 
Edward  Hitchcock. 


86 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


of  matter  and  the  reverent  interpretation  of  them,  can 
exert  any  but  a spiritualizing  and  elevating  influence  upon 
habits  of  thought  and  mode  of  life.  When  I return  to 
the  vulgar  level  of  the  ordinary  apprehension  of  nature’s 
facts,  I seem  to  mingle  in  a crowd  which  has  never  seen 
the  stars — a stolid  multitude  which  have  never  made  the 
acquaintance  of  a human  soul — not  even  of  their  own 
souls — and  only  know  divine  existence  through  the  hear- 
ing of  the  ear,  and  the  faint  gleam  of  light  in  reason’s 
darkened  window,  the  meaning  and  purpose  of  which 
they  have  never  sought  to  understand.  I hear  around 
me  the  voices  of  the  self-styled  philosophers  of  education 
and  apostles  of  culture.  They  stigmatize  my  pursuit  as 
the  study  of  a philosophy  of  dirt.  In  my  better  moments 
I do  not  indulge  the  feeling  of  resentment  which  the 
accusation  arouses.  I rise  above  them,  as  above  the 
profanity  of  driveling  intoxication  ; and  while  I bestow 
upon  them  my  sincerest  pity,  I gain  a new  understanding 
of  the  awful  compass  of  human  intelligence. 

There  are  other  provinces  of  geologic  information  from 
which  we  receive  influences  no  less  ethical  than  intellec- 
tual. While  the  process  of  acquisition  of  geologic  know- 
ledge brings  under  exercise  and  training  a wide  range  of 
mental  faculties,  and  while  the  acquired  results  are  so 
often  of  a utilitarian  and  civilizing  character,  while  there 
are  results  which,  as  just  stated,  exert  directly  an  amelior- 
ating influence  on  our  powers  of  apprehension  and  our 
mental  predispositions,  there  are  still  other  results  which 
indirectly  exert  an  ethical  influence  on  our  beliefs  and 
modes  of  thought  and  life.  This  fact  may  be  briefly 
elucidated.  By  a verdict  of  civilized  man  almost  uni- 
versal, there  are  in  existence  sacred  books  which  have 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS.  87 


come  to  man  through  a medium  usually  denominated 
inspiration.  For  my  present  purpose  it  is  not  necessary 
to  make  reference  to  any  particular  body  of  sacred  books 
— whether  Jewish,  Christian,  Mohammedan,  Buddhistic 
or  Brahministic.  The  principle  which  I wish  to  present 
applies  to  all.  Nor  is  it  necessary  for  writer  or  reader 
to  avow  acceptance  of  either.  All  have  their  adherents, 
and  in  civilized  countries  the  Jewish  and  Christian 
books  are  almost  universally  received.  Every  sacred 
book  is  occupied  chiefly  with  statements  of  assumed 
truth  which  is  supposed  to  lie  beyond  the  reach  of 
attainment  through  finite  powers.  But  every  sacred 
book  also  touches  on  secular  themes.  It  is  necessary  to 
use  these  as  leverage  for  moving  the  credence  of  men, 
and  bringing  rational  sanction  to  its  utterances.  Nat- 
urally, these  books  when  touching  secular  themes,  would 
dwell  most  on  those  phenomena  whose  explanations  were 
hidden  from  men  of  the  age  and  country  in  which  the 
revelations  were  penned.  Of  necessity  also,  the  progress 
of  human  knowledge  has  invaded  progressively  those 
realms  of  nature  once  relegated  to  the  direct  dominion 
of  the  supernatural  and  miraculous.  The  mode  of  origin 
of  the  world,  and  the  antiquity  of  the  world  are  subjects 
on  which  all  the  sacred  books  have  something  to  say. 
But  they  are  subjects  on  which  scientific  inquiry  has  shed 
much  light  since  the  epoch  of  revelations.  We  are  there- 
fore led  to  inquire  concerning  the  conformity  existing 
between  the  statements  of  the  sacred  books  and  the 
determinations  of  research.  If  the  sacred  books  have 
taught  error,  the  mind  will  free  itself  from  their  thrall. 
If  the  sacred  books  have  received  from  remote  and 
ignorant  ages  an  erroneous  interpretation,  the  intelligence 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


will  discover  the  true  interpretation,  and  emancipate 
itself  from  tyranny  of  narrow  and  inadequate  views, 
though  sanctioned  by  the  assent  of  an  antiquity  which 
is  venerable.  By  such  means  applied  to  the  secular 
problems,  of  the  age  of  the  human  species,  the  existence 
of  Preadamites,  the  universality  of  a primal  deluge,  the 
mundane  egg  of  the  Brahmins,  the  arrest  of  the  sun  in  its 
course,  the  seat  of  paradise,  primeval  chaos — problems 
not  exclusively  geological,  the  mind  arrives  at  truer  inter- 
pretations of  sacred  books ; and  thus  first  attains  the 
real  truths  which  they  embody,  or  finds  that  no  admis- 
sible interpretation  is  consonant  with  the  facts  as 
determined  by  scientific  investigation.  If  it  is  a truer 
interpretation  at  which  we  arrive,  the  sacred  books  rise 
to  a nobler  standing  in  our  esteem,  and  the  religious 
system  which  they  inculcate  acquires  newr  strength  and 
validity  in  the  domain  of  intelligence.  This  corrected 
and  harmonized  relation  of  the  sacred  books  to  the 
intelligence  conciliates  assent  and  determines  the  ethical 
attitude  or  even  the  ethical  and  religious  character  of  the 
student.  If  it  is  a conflict  with  the  sacred  books  at 
which  we  finally  arrive,  the  mind  is  freed  from  its 
reverence  for  error,  and  comes  into  an  improved  attitude 
for  accepting  the  truth  which  is  always  antipodal  to 
error. 

Evidently,  this  method  of  reasoning  admits  of  much 
amplification,  but  I think  it  better  to  leave  the  reader 
with  a clear  understanding  simply,  of  the  nature  of  the 
argument  which  is  here  employed  to  enforce  the  efficacy 
of  geological  knowledge  in  improving  our  ability  to 
exercise  just  judgment  on  certain  secular  questions  which 
stand  related  to  morals  and  religious  faith. 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS. 


89 


II.  THE  ETHICAL  INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL 
PREOCCUPATION. 

“ The  vices  of  the  people/’  says  Condorcet,  “ come  from 
the  need  of  escaping  from  ennui  in  moments  of  leisure, 
and  in  escaping  from  it  through  sensations,  and  not 
through  ideas.”  “These  are  notable  words,”  says  Com- 
payre,  “which  should  never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  teach- 
ers and  moralists  of  the  people.  To  cause  gross  natures 
to  pass  from  the  life  of  the  senses  to  the  intellectual  life  ; 
to  make  study  agreeable,  to  the  end  that  the  higher  pleas- 
ures of  the  spirit  may  struggle  successfully  against  the 
appetites  for  material  pleasures  ; to  put  the  book  in  the 
place  of  the  wine-bottle  ; to  substitute  the  library  for  the 
saloon  ; in  a word,  to  replace  sensation  by  idea  — such  is 
the  fundamental  problem  of  popular  education.  ”* 

The  application  of  the  principle  thus  enunciated  is  so 
obvious  and  so  just  that  little  amplification  is  needed.  It 
is  a weighty  consideration,  however,  to  bring  to  the  argu- 
ment for  the  early  study  of  the  elements  of  geology.  I 
intend  hereafter  to  give  that  question  special  attention, 
and  in  this  connection  desire  only  to  emphasize  the  moral 
influence  of  pleasant  preoccupation  upon  the  mind.  No 
other  study  lends  itself  with  such  facility  to  the  constant 
occupation  of  the  senses,  and  prompting  of  inferences  and 
reflections.  All  spontaneous  action  of  the  mind  is  delight- 
ful, and  all  delight  seeks  to  perpetuate  itself.  If  once 
the  mind  can  be  habituated  to  turn  to  the  objects  which 
lie  about  on  every  hand,  it  discovers  a spring  of  delight 
which  forestalls  the  search  for  grosser  pleasures.  He  who 
picks  up  thoughts  by  the  wayside  forgets  his  longing  for 
irrational  gratifications.  The  pleasures  of  observation, 

* CompayrtL  History  of  Pedagogy.  Payne's  tr.,  p.  381. 


90 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


imagination  and  reflection  are  so  much  more  engrossing 
than  sensual  indulgences,  that  the  love  of  study  becomes 
a guarantee  against  vice.  The  youth  inspired  with  the 
love  of  nature  has  no  time  for  dissipations.  To  attain  to 
preoccupation  of  the  mind  with  ideas,  we  must  pro- 
pose occupations  which  are  congenial  and  delightful. 
To  the  young  pupil,  abstract  studies  and  naked  efforts  of 
memorizing  are  neither  congenial  nor  natural.  Some- 
thing which  is  congenial  is  pointed  out  by  the  boy’s  spon- 
taneous and  habitual  attention  to  the  material  things  in 
the  midst  of  which  nature  has  placed  him.  If,  therefore, 
we  desire  the  child  to  add  to  formal  instruction  of  teach- 
ers and  parents,  such  ethical  influence  as  may  be  derived 
from  the  pursuit  of  study,  we  should  select  for  him  the 
study  of  nature.  And  if,  with  advancing  maturity,  we 
desire  to  throw  around  him  all  the  moral  guarantees  which 
Providence  has  placed  at  our  disposal,  we  shall  endeavor 
to  prolong  the  inclination  of  his  thoughtful  attention  to 
the  themes  most  accessible,  most  intelligible  and  most 
abundant  in  intellectual  delight.  By  such  a course  of 
training,  the  man  will  have  acquired  a bent  toward  intel- 
lectual life  which  will  prove  the  noblest  and  worthi- 
est insurance  against  the  temptations  of  idleness  and 
dissipation. 

III.  ETHICAL  INFLUENCE  AS  A REFLEX  RESULT  OF 
GEOLOGIC  STUDY. 

I direct  attention  here  less  to  knowledge  than  the  pro- 
cess of  acquiring  knowledge.  The  ethical  ordering  of 
life  deals  with  isolated  instances  and  concrete  facts. 
Ethical  philosophy  has  its  principles,  hut  an  observance 
of  them  in  individual  life  is  a perpetual  discrimination 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS. 


91 


among  concrete  instances.  It  is  a deed  or  a word  which, 
in  human  experience,  elicits  the  activity  of  the  moral 
sentiments.  The  accurate  observation  of  facts,  therefore, 
and  the  competent  and  unbiased  formation  of  judgments 
on  them,  is  the  process  by  which  all  conclusions  are  reached 
which  enter  into  the  formation  of  conduct.  But  this  is 
precisely  the  mental  process  by  which  conclusions  are 
reached  in  geological  reasoning  or  study.  Aptness,  readi- 
ness and  spontaneity  in  the  execution  of  those  processes 
constitute  what  we  mean  by  the  scientific  habit.  Eager- 
ness to  act  on  determinations  reached  by  such  processes  is 
the  scientific  spirit.  The  scientific  habit  of  mind  is  there- 
fore the  precise  habit  required  for  most  just  judgments 
within  the  sphere  of  all  activities  possessing  an  ethical 
character.  Geology  is  the  best  of  the  sciences  for  the 
cultivation  and  fixing  of  the  scientific  habit  of  thought. 
The  connection  between  the  study  of  geology  and  the 
ethics  of  common  life  is  therefore  obvious.  * 

It  may  be  useful  however,  to  enter  into  some  particulars 
for  a fuller  definition  of  the  scientific  spirit.  This  spirit, 
first  of  all,  loves  the  truth  supremely.  It  feels  that  the 
passive  acceptance  of  error  is  an  affront  to  truth  and 
intelligence.  It  therefore  seeks  earnestly  to  arrive  at 
truth  and  to  avoid  error,  either  in  conception  or  conclu- 
sion. It  therefore  maintains  a habit  of  watchfulness  and 
scrutiny.  It  seeks  to  be  accurate  in  its  observation  of 
facts,  in  its  collocation  of  them,  and  in  the  inferences 
drawn  from  them.  It  is  cautious  ; it  pauses  and  reflects  ; 
it  repeats  its  observations  ; it  accumulates  many  facts  to 

* The  relation  between  the  scientific  habit  and  the  ethics  of  life  has  been 
forcibly  brought  to  view  in  the  Commencement  Address  of  President  T.  C. 
Chamberlin  of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  delivered  at  Ann  Arbor,  June 
28. 1888,  entitled  The  Ethical  Functions  of  Scientific  Study. 


92 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ' 


enlarge  the  bases  of  its  generalizations.  It  enounces 
inferences  tentatively,  and  verifies  them  at  every  oppor- 
tunity. It  refuses  to  swerve  from  the  teachings  of  the 
evidence.  Interest,  prejudice,  friendships,  advantage, 
all  must  be  pushed  aside.  An  attitude  of  absolute 
indifference  toward  collateral  ends  must  be  maintained.  It 
knows  no  motives  but  one,  that  is  the  exact  truth.  This 
is  the  true  judicial  attitude.  It  is  an  ideal  attainment. 
Probably,  under  human  conditions  it  is  never  reached  ; 
but  the  scientific  spirit  approaches  it,  as  the  asymptote 
approaches  the  curve.  If  not  reached,  it  is  a spirit  which 
comes  nearer  the  truth  than  any  less  cautious  and 
scrupulous  one.  Even  when  far  short  of  perfect  develop- 
ment, the  scientific  spirit  and  the  scientific  habit  which 
it  creates,  are  conditions  of  the  human  soul  keeping  it 
near  the  truth,  saving  it  from  inaccurate  observation  and 
apprehension  of  facts,  from  hasty  and  probably  erroneous 
inferences,  and  from  those  errors  of  action  and  life  which 
we  base  on  false  assumptions. 

How  many  of  those  errors  of  action  and  life  fall  within 
the  sphere  of  our  ethical  conduct ! How  many  blame- 
worthy things  are  said  and  done  because  the  premises  on 
which  we  act  are  simply  erroneous  understandings — 
erroneous,  because  inferences  too  hastily  drawn,  without 
sufficient  basis  of  facts ; erroneous,  because  the  facts  are 
not  carefully  ascertained  before  inference  is  built  upon 
them ; erroneous,  because  interest  or  prejudice  or 
influence  has  distorted  our  apprehension  of  the  facts  or 
biased  our  inferences  from  them  ! Such  inaccurate 
observations,  such  hasty  inferences,  such  biased  judg- 
ments make  up  a large  proportion  of  daily  doings  and 
sayings— alas  ! too  large.  From  them  come  misstate- 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS. 


93 


ments  of  facts  ; colorings  of  facts  ; prejudiced  inferences, 
misconstrued  motives,  unmerited  denunciations,  baseless 
antipathies,  unreasoning  hostilities,  alienations,  calum- 
nies, wilful  damages,  duels,  murders,  disgrace.  I think 
the  connection  between  a lack  of  the  scientific  spirit  and 
the  misunderstandings,  calumnies,  slanders  and  mutual 
injuries  of  society  is  perfectly  intelligible,  and  demon- 
strably causal.  An  alienation  between  friends  we  often 
style  a misunderstanding.  Nothing  could  be  more  truly 
stated.  One  if  not  both  misunderstands  the  facts  at  the 
basis  of  the  dispute.  Or  else  one  or  both  misunderstands 
the  nature  of  the  inference  supported  by  the  facts.  Miss 
A's  friend  meets  her  on  the  street  and  passes  without  speak- 
ing. Miss  A assumes  this  as  a deliberate  slight,  and  a 
coldness  springs  up  between  them.  The  truth  is  that 
Miss  A’s  friend  was  preoccupied  at  the  moment  of  meet- 
ing, and  did  not  see  her.  Many  church  members  fall 
into  errors  of  life,  and  a man  of  worldly  predispositions 
denounces  the  church  for  fostering  wickedness ; or  denies 
the  salutary  influence  exerted  by  churches  over  the  lives 
of  their  adherents.  Here  are  errors  of  hasty  induction. 
The  platform  of  one  political  party  proclaims  adherence 
to  the  principle  of  protection,  even  if  a growing  surplus 
of  revenue  should  make  it  necessary  to  abolish  all  internal 
taxes.  An  op2iosing  party  declares  its  policical  foes 
favorable  to  free  whisky  and  free  tobacco.  Here  is  an 
erroneous  apprehension*  of  the  premise.  Another  party 
declares  for  the  reduction  of  the  import  taxes  which  do 
so  much  to  create  a surfeit  of  the  treasury,  and  their 
political  foes  insist  that  they  hold  the  doctrine  of  free 
trade,  or  a doctrine  which  necessarily  leads  to  it.  The 
first  is  a misstatement  of  fact,  and  the  alternative  is  a 


94 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


false  deduction.  Thus  from  imperfect  use  of  their 
intellectual  powers,  men  and  women  are  led  to  false 
assumption  of  motives,  ascription  of  principles  and 
opinions  entirely  alien  to  the  facts,  and  to  lives  of  pre- 
judice and  bickering  and  slander  which  the  exercise  of  a 
true  scientific  spirit  would  correct. 

The  action  of  these  influences  is  seen  in  religion  almost 
as  much  as  in  politics.  President  Chamberlin  speaks 
truly  when  he  says  : “ The  propagation  of  the  spirit  of 
untrammeled  inquiry  is  working,  and  is  destined  still 
more  fruitfully  to  work,  a beneficent  modification  in  the 
phases  of  religious  thought.  A genial  change  is  gradually 
creeping  over  the  theological  discussions  of  our  time,  and 
bringing  with  it  broader  sympathies,  a more  reverent 
spirit,  a more  just  recognition  of  the  good  and  the  ill  in 
current  doctrines.” 

Even  moral  reforms  are  sometimes  conducted  according 
to  immoral  methods.  I know  of  no  stronger  motives  to 
action  than  those  supplied  by  the  moral  sense.  It  seeks 
its  ends  with  eagerness,  persistence  and  self-abandonment. 
Discernment  is  not  one  of  its  attributes.  This  is  a func- 
tion of  intelligence.  If  the  intelligence,  therefore,  be  not 
trained  in  the  true  investigative  spirit,  it  fails  to  present 
the  case  to  moral  impulse  in  a truthful  and  unprejudiced 
light.  The  impulse — noble  in  itself — the  very  instinct 
of  purity — fails  in  the  discernment  of  relations,  becomes 
impatient  of  opposition,  refuses  to  weigh  reasons  which 
would  render  the  accomplishment  of  its  ends  more  cir- 
cuitous though  more  sure,  misjudges  the  motives  of  those 
having  ways  of  their  own,  finally  substitutes  its  own  par- 
ticular methods  for  the  great  moral  end  for  which  it 


INFLUENCE  OF  GEOLOGICAL  CONCEPTIONS. 


95 


started,  and  brings  hindrance  and  detriment  to  the  reform 
which  all  pronounce  desirable. 

“ Investigative  study/’  says  President  Chamberlin,  in 
summation,  “calls  into  continuous  exercise  certain  noble 
activities  and  attitudes  of  the  mind  : — to  love  the  truth 
supremely,  to  seek  the  truth  assiduously,  to  scrutinize 
evidence  rigorously,  to  withhold  judgment  when  evidence 
is  insufficient,  to  look  upon  all  sides  equally,  to  judge 
impartially,  and  to  make  conscientious  corrections  for 
personal  bias.  The  continued  exercise  of  these  sterling- 
activities  during  the  formative  stages  of  the  mind,  devel- 
ops corresponding  habits  of  thought,  and  forms  a perma- 
nent disposition  which  influences  all  subsequent  action 
for  good.  This  disposition  displaces  other  dispositions 
upon  which  immoral  tendencies  more  easily  implant  them- 
selves. It  thus  works  at  the  very  source  from  whence 
spring  moral  issues.  Its  effects  are  slow  and  unobtrusive, 
but  radical  and  pervasive.” 

Thus  on  a survey  of  the  ethical  value  of  geologic  study, 
we  discover  that  the  knowledge  to  which  we  rise  expands 
our  apprehensions,  and  enlarges  and  liberalizes  and  enno- 
bles our  souls  ; the  preoccupation  of  the  mind  with  per- 
cipient activities  and  exalting  contemplations  excludes 
the  desire  for  groveling  indulgences  ; and  the  very  habits 
which  we  acquire  in  attaining  to  such  knowledge  and 
employing  such  activities,  are  the  implanted  germs  of 
better  balanced  lives  and  higher  morality.  It  can  be  only 
a most  inadequate  conception  of  the  nature  and  influence 
of  geologic  study  which  would  permit  an  educational 
philosopher  to  assign  it  a low  position  in  the  scale  of  cul- 
ture agencies.* 

*1  find  a glowing  plea  for  “Geology  as  a branch  of  Education”  in 
“Notice  of  the  Ward  Cabinets,”  at  Rochester,  1863. 


VIII. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 

T HAVE  stated  that  geology  has  a two-fold  claim  upon 
the  regard  of  educators.  It  must  be  evaluated  as  a 
means  of  useful  knowledge  not  less  conscientiously  than 
as  a means  of  culture.  Even  the  “apostle  of  culture” 
has  admitted  that  natural  science  supplies  us  with  knowl- 
edge the  acquisition  of  which  is  indispensable  in  all  gen- 
eral education.  Mr.  Arnold  only  objects  that  “ it  is  not 
put  up  for  us  in  relation  with  our  sense  for  conduct.” 
Perhaps  those  who  understand  better  what  geology  is  and 
how  it  is  “ put  up,”  may  discover  it  standing  in  some  dis- 
tinct and  important  relation  with  our  “ sense  for  con- 
duct.” However  that  may  be,  the  value  of  the  knowledge 
is  something  to  which  Mr.  Arnold  could  not  be  blind,  and 
it  is  this  which  I wish  next  to  examine.  I believe  the 
mass  of  mankind,  influenced  too  much,  probably  by 
material  interests,  are  placing  a higher  estimate  on  the 
knowledge  value  of  geology  than  on  the  culture  value  of 
it.  If  so,  their  preference  cannot  go  unheeded  in  fitting 
an  educational  fabric  to  the  wants  of  the  citizens  of 
our  nation. 

The  marvelous  advances  of  modern  civilization  have 
been  depicted  so  many  times  that  exclamations  are  trite. 
If  we  attempt  by  analysis  to  ascertain  the  factors  of  this 
civilization,  we  discover  first,  that  they  are,  in  general 
terms,  spiritual  products  and  material  products — institu- 
tions and  industries.  Of  our  institutions — governmental. 


96 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


97 


ecclesiastical,  educational,  charitable,  I am  not  called  upon 
to  speak.  With  the  industries  of  modern  civilization 
geology  has  had  something  to  do.  I need  not  claim  for 
the  influence  of  industries  a greater  importance  than  for 
the  influence  of  institutions,  in  reminding  the  reader  that 
the  influence  of  industries  has  been  creative  and  control- 
ling in  all  the  visible  forms  of  our  civilization.  In  modern 
industries,  geology  has  sustained  relations  which  I will 
attempt  to  point  out  in  a comprehensive  manner.  No 
previous  age  has  been  witness  of  the  great  influence  of 
geology,  and  no  previous  age  has  been  in  position  to  pass 
judgment  on  the  fitness  of  geology  to  contribute  to  the 
advance  of  the  characteristic  activities  of  civilization. 

If  we  seek  for  the  position  of  geology  in  modern  activi- 
ties, the  wide  existence  of  public  geological  surveys  is  dem- 
onstration of  the  esteem  in  which  geology  is  held  among 
statesmen,  as  an  agency  for  contributing  to  public  welfare. 
The  intelligent  reader  scarcely  needs  to  be  reminded  that 
public  surveys  have  been  instituted  by  all  the  leading  gov- 
ernments of  the  Old  World.  Surveys  are  at  this  moment 
in  progress  in  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria,  Bulgaria, 
Italy,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway  and  other  countries.  In 
some  of  these  countries  surveys  have  been  organized  the 
second  and  third  time,  after  intervals  of  years.  The  sur- 
vey of  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  in  progress  since 
1832,  and  is  still  vigorously  prosecuted.  The  annual 
appropriation  for  the  survey  proper  is  about  $100,000. 
Geological  surveys  are  in  progress  in  India,  in  Queens- 
land and  in  New  South  Wales.  A mineralogic  exploration 
of  France  was  ordered  by  Louis  XV.  near  the  close  of  his 
reign.  In  1794,  the  Republic  entrusted  work  of  that  kind 
to  the  School  of  Mines  and  the  Corps  of  Mining  Engin- 


7 


98 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


eers.  Various  advances  have  since  been  made.  The 
present  survey  was  organized  in  1868.  Various  partial 
surveys  have  been  accomplished  in  China  under  govern- 
ment auspices,  and  Japan  has  sustained  a survey  almost 
from  the  entrance  of  the  empire  into  the  sisterhood  of 
nations.  In  Canada,  a government  survey  has  been  in 
progress  since  1841.  The  present  survey  was  established 
in  1845,  and  since  1877  it  has  been  known  as  “The  Geol- 
ogical and  Natural  History  Survey  of  Canada.”* 

Turning  to  the  United  States  we  learn  that  surveys 
began  to  be  undertaken  by  state  authority  as  early  as 
1824.  Among  the  earlier  surveys  were  those  of  North 
Carolina  by  Denison  Olmsted  ; South  Carolina,  1826,  by 
Gardner  Vanuxem ; Massachusetts,  1830,  by  Edward 
Hitchcock  ; Tennessee,  territory  of  Arkansas,  New  Jersey 
and  Virginia.  None  of  these,  except  that  of  New  Jersey, 
have  been  completed  on  the  scale  of  magnitude  and 
thoroughness  deemed  necessary  in  later  times.  The  most 
important  and  most  thoroughly  completed  state  surveys 
are  those  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Ohio, 
Wisconsin,  New  Jersey.  Surveys  in  the  midst  of  pro- 
gress are  those  of  Minnesota,  Michigan,  Kentucky, 

*Some  of  the  annual  appropriations  of  foreign  governments  are  given 


below : 

France  [1884]  about $15,440.00 

Great  Britain  [1885],  Survey $97,916.22 

Museum  of  Practical  Geology. . 19,085.53 

Roval  School  of  Mines 72,329.24 

189,330.99 

Bavaria 4,000.00 

Austria-Hungary:  Austria  [1871] 17,225.00 

Italy  [1883] 16,032.00 

For  18  years  preceding  1882 800,000.00 

Sweden  [1878] 22,250.00 

Norway  [1883] 2.6S8.00 

Russia 19,350.00 

Switzerland,  Proceeds  of  map-sales  and 2,S95.00 

Canada  [1883] 60,000.00 


/ 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


99 


Arkansas,  Alabama,  Texas  and  Florida.  Surveys  in 
many  of  the  states  have  been  interrupted  and  left  in 
a state  of  incompleteness.  This  is  the  case  with  Missouri, 
Tennessee,  Connecticut,  Maine,  Virginia,  North  Car- 
olina, Georgia,  Mississippi,  California,  Nevada  and  Ore- 
gon. In  several  of  the  states  the  surveys  after  suspen- 
sion for  a term  of  years,  have  been  taken  up  again  and 
carried  to  completion,  or  are  still  in  progress.  Enter- 
prises have  been  resumed  a second  or  third  time  in 
Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  Massachusetts, 
Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  North  Carolina.  The  geological  survey  of 
New  York  was  organized  under  the  administration  of 
Governor  Marcy  in  1837,  and  has  received  the  renewed 
sanction  of  Wright,  Hunt,  Morgan,  Seward,  Fenton, 
and  the  successive  state  executives  down  to  the  present 
date.  Professor  James  Hall,  who  has  been  in  the  service 
of  the  state  on  this  survey,  ever  since  its  organization, 
and  has  performed  a magnificent  work  for  science,  which 
has  brought  renown  upon  himself,  the  state  and  the 
nation,  has  always  been  devoted  to  the  palaeontogical 
department  of  geological  work,  instead  of  those  leading 
to  immediate  economic  applications.  The  final  results 
of  his  investigations  are  embodied  in  thirteen  quarto 
volumes  with  many  hundred  lithographed  plates  of 
illustrations.  One  or  two  additional  volumes  are  planned. 
In  addition  to  these,  single  volumes  were  written  by 
Beck,  Vanuxem  and  Mather,  and  two  volumes  by 
Emmons.  * 

* The  principal  publications  by  other  states  are  as  follows' 

Illinois,  Final  Report,  8 vols.  8vo. 

Ohio,  “ “ 9 “ “ 

Indiana,  Annual  Reports,  14  vols. 


( See  next  page.) 


100 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Beside  enterprises  carried  forward  under  authority  of 
individual  states,  our  general  government  has  always 
promoted  geological  investigations  of  the  interior. 
Hardly  an  exploration  has  been  undertaken  within  the 
area  of  the  public  domain,  or  a survey  for  a wagon-road, 
or  a railroad,  that  geologists  have  not  been  attached  to 
the  corps  of  explorers.  Featherstcnhaugh  was  geologist 
of  an  expedition  to  the  Coteau  de  Prairie  in  1836. 
Houghton  was  attached  to  the  Schoolcraft  expedition  to 
discover  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  river.  Dr.  C.  C. 
Parry  and  Dr.  Arthur  Schott  attended  to  the  geology  of 
the  Mexican  boundary  survey.  Oliver  Marcy  accompanied 
a corps  for  the  survey  of  a route  for  a wagon-road  in  Mon- 
tana. We  may  mention  also,  Stansbury’s  expedition  to 
the  Great  Salt  lake,  the  geology  of  which  was  written  by 
Professor  James  Hall ; Ives’  exploration  of  the  Colorado, 
of  which  Dr.  J.  S.  Newberry  was  official  geologist  ; Simp- 
son's Exploration  across  the  Utah  Basin,  the  geology  of 
which  was  worked  out  by  Englemann  and  Meek,  [1859  ; 
published  in  1876];  Lieut.  Warren’s  exploration  of  the 
Upper  Missouri,  the  geology  of  which  was  thoroughly 
studied  by  Dr.  F.  V.  Hayden  and  Mr.  F.  B.  Meek,  and 


Wisconsin,  Final  Report,  4 vols.  8vo  and  Atlas. 


Michigan,  “ 

“ 4 

“ and  Atlas. 

Minnesota,  “ 

“ 2 

4 to  Annual  Reports,  16  vols. 

Vermont, 

“ 2 “ 

“ 

California,  “ 

2 “ 

8vo. 

Iowa, 

“ 2+2  “ 

“ Annual  Reports,  2 vols. 

Missouri, 

“ 1+3  “ 

“ and  Atlas. 

Kentucky,  “ 

“ 4+6  “ 

*■  and  35  Special  Reports  and  maps. 

Tennessee,  “ 

“ 1+1+1“ 

“ 

New  Jersey,  “ 

“ 1+1  “ 

“ and  Atlas,  and  14  Annual  Reports. 

New  Hampshire 

“ 3 “ 

“ 

Alabama,  Annual  Reports  3+8. 

Pennsylvania,  about  85  vols.  and  atlases  of  miscellaneous  reps.,  2 Ann.  Reps. 
First  Survey,  two  heavy  4to  vols.  and  maps. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


101 


Professor  Joseph  Leidy  ; Macomb’s  expedition  with  J.  S. 
Newberry  as  geologist,  from  Santa  Fe  to  the  junction  of 
the  Grand  and  Green  rivers,  in  1859,  of  which  the  report 
was  published  in  1876  ; Ludlow’s  reconnoissance  of  the 
Black  Hills  in  1859,  of  which  N.  H.  Wmchell  was 
geologist ; and  Ludlow’s  reconnoissance  from  Montana  to 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  with  E.  S.  Dana  and  G.  B. 
Grinnell  commissioned  for  geological  duty.  I forbear  to 
cite  other  instances  of  this  class. 

The  great  national  enterprise  of  a survey  for  a railroad 
route  from  the  Mississippi  river  to  the  Pacific  ocean  was 
a signal  instance  of  the  nation’s  appeal  to  geology  to 
contribute  what  it  could  to  the  stock  of  information 
needed  to  guide  an  undertaking  so  stupendous  that  it  has 
scarcely  been  equalled  in  the  history  of  the  world.  Three 
routes  were  surveyed — a northern,  a central  and  a south- 
ern ; and  geological  observers  belonged  to  the  scientific 
corps  attached  to  each  of  these  surveys.  On  the  northern 
route,  John  Evans  and  George  Gibbs  acted  as  official 
geologists.  On  the  central  route,  William  P.  Blake  and 
Jules  Marcou  were  the  geologists  ; and  on  the  southern, 
Thomas  Antisell  and  T.  A.  Conrad.  On  a collateral 
survey  from  the  Sacramento  valley  to  the  Columbia 
river,  J.  S.  Newberry  acted  as  geologist.  The  reports 
of  these  geological  observers  and  investigators  cover 
about  a thousand  pages  in  the  volumes  of  the  official 
quarto  reports  of  the  surveys.  These  are  twelve  in 
number. 

But  the  attention  given  by  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  direct  and  exclusive  efforts  in  geological  investi- 
gation form  a chapter  in  our  civil  history  of  such  import- 
ance and  interest,  that  some  mention  must  be  made  of  it. 


102 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


These  efforts  and  expenditures  are  the  crowning  evidence 
of  the  high  position  of  geology  in  the  esteem  of  enlight- 
ened statesmanship,  in  its  efforts  to  promote,  not  culture, 
but  the  material  prosperity  of  the  nation.  The  pioneer  in 
specific  geological  surveys  under  the  auspices  of  the  Gen- 
eral Government,  was  Charles  T.  Jackson,  who  made  a 
scientific  survey  of  the  mineral  lands  of  the  Lake  Superior 
region  in  Michigan.  This  survey  was  provided  for  by  act 
of  Congress  approved  March  1,  1847,  and  the  report  was 
printed  in  1849,  forming  an  octavo  volume  of  845  pages, 
with  maps  and  illustrations.  The  survey  of  these  lands 
had  been  begun  at  the  instance  of  Dr.  Houghton  in  1842, 
who  as  State  Geologist  of  Michigan  had  connected  geo- 
logical and  linear  surveys  under  a jfian  devised  by  him, 
and  approved  by  the  Commissioner  of  the  General  Land 
Office.  The  survey  was  continued  by  Joseph  W.  Foster 
and  Josiah  D.  Whitney,  the  latter  at  present  the  senior 
professor  of  geology  at  Cambridge.  Their  report  was 
published  in  1851,  and  embodied  investigations  by  James 
Hall,  E.  Desor  and  Charles  Whittlesey. 

In  1847,  a great  geological  investigation  was  begun  by 
D.  D.  Owen,  under  the  auspices  of  the  General  Land 
Office,  and  a final  report  was  rendered  in  1851,  entitled 
“Report  of  a Geological  Survey  of  Wisconsin,  Iowa  and 
Minnesota/’  contained  in  a quarto  volume  of  638  pages, 
fifteen  plates  and  many  other  illustrations  and  numerous 
maps. 

About  1866  began  an  era  of  public  geological  surveys 
which  has  witnessed  an  ever  widening  extension  of  work 
down  to  the  present  time.  After  the  completion  of  the 
geological  work  of  General  Warren’s  exploration  in  the 
upper  Missouri  region,  a succession  of  special  geological 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


103 


surveys  was  placed  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Hayden, 
which  extended  into  Nebraska,  Colorado,  New  Mexico, 
Montana  and  Idaho,  and  were  meantime,  formally  organ- 
ized under  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  as  the  “ United 
States  Geological  and  Geographical  Survey  of  the  Terri- 
tories.” The  investigation  enlisted  the  cooperation  of 
many  of  the  foremost  geologists  of  the  United  States — 
including  Meek,  Newberry,  Cope,  White  and  Leidy.  The 
publication  embraced  twelve  annual  reports,  making  sev- 
enteen octavo  volumes,  and  twelve  heavy  quarto  volumes 
with  a wealth  of  illustrative  plates.  A Bulletin  was  also 
published  containing  special  investigations,  and  this  ex- 
tended to  six  volumes.  A folio  atlas  and  separate  maps 
appeared  during  the  progress  of  this  great  work. 

Meantime,  in  1867,  another  great  national  survey  was 
organized  under  the  direction  of  Clarence  King,  known 
as  the  “ United  States  Geological  Exploration  of  the  For- 
tieth Parallel” — or  briefly,  the  “ Fortieth  Parallel  Sur- 
vey.” This  was  under  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of 
Engineers.  It  was  especially  intended  to  supply  geolog- 
ical maps  of  the  country  about  to  be  opened  up  by  the 
Union  and  Central  Pacific  Railroads.  The  reports  pub- 
lished number  seven  quarto  volumes  ; and  the  volume  on 
systematic  geology  is  illustrated  by  twenty-eight  plates 
and  twelve  analytical  geological  maps,  and  is  accompanied 
by  a geological  and  topographical  atlas. 

A third  national  survey  of  similar  magnitude  developed 
into  form  from  1872  to  1874,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Chief  of  Engineers.  This  was  in  charge  of  Lieut.  George 
M.  Wheeler,  and  was  denominated  “ Geographical  and 
Geological  Surveys  west  of  the  One  Hundredth  Meridian.” 


104 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


The  results  of  this  work  are  embraced  in  six  quarto 
volumes,  an  atlas  of  maps  and  many  lithographic 
illustrations. 

A fourth  national  survey  grew  into  organized  form 
during  1874  and  1875,  under  the  control  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  with  J.  W.  Powell  in  charge.  The 
personal  connection  of  Major  Powell  with  the  public  sur- 
veys really  began  in  1867,  and  was  continued  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  until  1874,  when 
the  quarto  volume  entitled  “Exploration  of  the  Colorado 
River  of  the  West  ” was  ordered  published  by  Congress. 
The  work  committed  to  the  charge  of  Major  Powell  was 
now  organized  as  the  “United  States  Geological  and 
Geographical  Survey  of  the  Territories,  Second  Division  ;” 
but,  in  1877,  it  became  the  “United  States  Geographical 
and  Geological  Survey  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.”  Under 
the  immediate  direction  of  Major  Powell,  six  quarto  vol- 
umes were  published. 

Finally,  in  1879,  all  the  existing  national  surveys  were 
terminated  by  act  of  Congress,  and  provision  was  made 
for  the  organization  of  a single  survey,  to  he  known  as 
the  “United  States  Geological  Survey,”  under  the  charge 
of  the  department  of  the  interior  ; and  Clarence  King  was 
appointed  director.  Resigning  at  the  end  of  a year,  Mr. 
King  was  succeeded  by  Major  J.  W.  Powell.  Since  this 
event,  the  work  of  the  survey  has  been  prosecuted  with 
energy,  thoroughness,  and  magnitude  of  organization 
unequaled  in  the  history  of  nations.  Beginning  with  an 
annual  appropriation  of  one  hundred  thousand  dollars, 
the  provision  has  expanded  until,  in  1SS8,  it  amounts  to 
nearly  one  million  dollars.  This  however,  includes  one 


GEOLOGY  AYD  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


105 


hundred  thousand  dollars  for  reclaiming  desert  lands.* 
The  results  are  too  abundant  even  to  summarize  in  this 
place.  I will  only  state  generally,  that  they  are  embodied 
in  six  annual  reports  already  in  print,  of  royal  octavo 
size  ; twelve  quarto  volumes  of  monographs  ; four  octavo 
volumes  on  the  ‘“  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United 
States and  about  eight  octavo  volumes  of  bulletins.  As 
the  printing  department  of  the  government  is  greatly  in 
arrears,  a very  large  amount  of  matter  ready  for  the  press 
remains  accumulated,  f 

The  foregoing  statements  have  been  made  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  showing  the  estimate  which  has  been  placed 
on  the  value  of  the  results  of  geologic  investigation  by  all 
the  enlightened  governments  of  the  world.  A mere 
enumeration  of  the  fact  and  general  character  of  these 
surveys  presents  rather  a voluminous  record  ; but  I have 
thought  such  an  amount  of  information  useful  in  creat- 
ing an  adequate  impression  of  the  magnitude  and 
universality  of  such  surveys,  and  of  the  general  con- 
viction of  the  usefulness  of  geologic  knowledge. 


* The  following  sums  have  been  appropriated  by  Congress  for  the  several 


surveys  last  mentioned : 

Hayden  survey  of  the  territories $720,000  00 

King  survey  of  the  Fortieth  parallel ...  386,711  85 

Wheeler  survey  west  of  the  One  Hundredth  meridian 599,310  72 

Powell  survey 279,000  00 

U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1880 106.000  00 

“ “ “ 1881 156,000  00 

“ “ “ 1882 156,000  00 

“ “ “ 1883  864,940  00 

“ “ “ 1884  399,640  00 

“ “ “ 1885  489,040  00 


+ A vast  amount  of  statistical  information  relating  to  the  United  States 
geological  survey,  and  to  topographic  and  geologic  surveys  in  other 
countries  is  communicated  by  Major  Powell  in  “ Testimony  before  a Joint 
Commission”  “on  the  organization  of  scientific  work  of  the  general 
government,”  December,  1884,  and  August,  1887. 


106 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Governments  in  other  ways  have  furnished  testimony 
to  the  same  effect,  in  the  maintenance  of  mining  schools 
and  museums  of  geology.  Museums  have  been  created  in 
the  capitals  of  all  the  leading  countries  of  the  world — 
London,  Paris,  Dresden,  Rome,  Madrid,  Stockholm,  St. 
Petersburgh,  Berne,  Washington,  New  York,  Albany, 
San  Francisco,  Buenos  Ayres.  Celebrated  mining 
schools  exist  in  Paris,  London,  Vienna,  Berlin  and 
various  other  cities.  In  America,  they  are  maintained 
in  New  York,  Michigan  and  Missouri.  Chairs  of  mining 
or  economic  geology  exist  in  most  of  the  great  univers- 
ities of  the  world.  These,  like  provisions  for  public 
surveys,  are  all  testimonials  of  the  existence  of  a public 
opinion  which  holds  geologic  information  in  high  esteem 
as  answering  a demand  of  modern  civilization. 

The  volume  of  this  class  of  evidence  may  be  still 
further  augmented.  Hundreds  of  geologic  surveys  are 
made  under  private  auspices.  In  every  mining  district 
throughout  the  civilized  world,  geologic  experts  are  in 
constant  employment  in  seeking  for  valuable  deposits 
under  the  indications  of  geologic  data,  or  determining  on 
geologic  grounds  the  value  of  properties  already  located. 
They  are  summoned  to  give  counsel  in  the  opening  of 
mines,  in  the  search  for  coal  and  petroleum  and  gas. 
Besides  competent  experts,  hundreds  of  pretenders  and 
so-called  “practical  miners”  are  engaged  in  the  same 
employments.  Even  if  the  latter  misinterpret  geological 
principles,  or  make  no  use  of  any  geological  principles 
whatever,  still  every  one  understands  that  real  principles 
rightly  interpreted,  lie  at  the  foundation  of  a rational 
and  hopeful  search. 

The  vastness  and  costliness  of  the  enterprises  predicated 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


107 


on  geological  conditions  is  another  expression  of  faith  in 
the  value  of  results  sought  by  methodical  geologic  opera- 
tions. The  Comstock  Lode”  was  a fissure  in  the  solid 
crust  of  the  earth,  filled  with  a gangue  rich  in  gold  and 
silver.  Its  location  was  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Virginia  range,  a spur  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It  was 

10.000  feet  long  and  600  feet  wide,  and  was  mined  by 
thirty-three  leading  incorporations.  The  deepest  excava- 
tions were  sunk  3,080  feet.  Enormous  volumes  of  water 
rushed  into  the  works,  and  it  was  necessary  to  remove  it 
by  means  of  steam  pumps,  the  most  powerful  ever  used. 
The  difficulty  of  removing  the  water  increased  with  the 
depth  of  the  excavation.  A miner  named  Sutro  devised 
a great  tunnel  for  the  easier  drainage  of  the  mines.  As 
the  lode  was  situated  on  the  eastern  slope  of  a mountain, 
his  project  was  to  carry  the  tunnel  from  near  the  bottom 
of  the  mines  eastward  at  a moderate  descent  until  it 
should  emerge  to  daylight  somewhere  at  a lower  level. 
After  incredible  struggles  ; after  thirteen  years  of  efforts 
of  such  character  as  to  rise  to  the  level  of  romance,  the 
tunnel  was  completed  and  proved  a success.  It  was 

20.000  feet  long.  It  left  the  mines  at  a depth  of  1,900 
feet.  The  water  was  pumped  from  the  lowest  levels  to 
tributary  tunnels  which  carried  it  to  the  main  passage. 
Here  it  rushed  out  in  a miniature  river,  flowed  along  the 
great  tunnel,  and  finally  issued  at  a temperature  of  118 
degrees.  The  cost  of  the  tunnel  was  two  million  dollars. 
These  vast  undertakings  were  efforts  of  engineering,  but 
they  had  geological  conditions  as  a basis. 

I have  so  far  made  appeal  only  to  public  opinion  in 
support  of  the  claim  that  geology  offers  most  valuable 
contributions  to  enterprises  which  characterize  our 


108 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


civilization,  and  that  for  such  reason  alone,  it  is  worthy 
of  qtromotion  almost  regardless  of  cost  to  the  public 
treasury.  But  the  facts  on  which  opinion  rests  are 
quite  intelligible.  They  have  been  considered  and 
weighed  by  the  thousands  who  conduct  our  civilization 
and  our  legislation.  The  organizations  which  I have 
enumerated  are  the  verdict  already  rendered,  of  the 
best  judgment  and  fullest  experience  of  civilized  nations. 
To  give  an  exposition  of  the  facts,  however,  would  be  co 
compile  a treatise  on  applied  geology.  But  I may  indicate 
the  nature  of  the  facts. 

Geology  has  shown  that  the  various  mineral  deposits 
of  value  to  man  are  distributed  through  the  crust  of 
the  earth  according  to  methods  which  are  uniform  and 
intelligible.  A knowledge  of  the  facts  of  general  geology 
embraces  a knowledge  of  the  methods  of  mineral  distribu- 
tion. A special  study  of  these,  and  a completer  acquaint- 
ance with  them,  constitute  the  department  of  the  science 
known  as  “economic  geology.”  We  have  extensive 
treatises  devoted  to  elucidating  and  illustrating  the  geol- 
ogic conditions  under  which  we  discover  native  metals 
and  the  various  ores  of  metals ; so  that,  after  the  student 
has  become  acquainted  with  the  arrangement  of  geological 
conditions  in  general,  he  may  recognize  certain  ones 
as  compatible,  and  others  as  incompatible,  with  the  con- 
comitant existence  of  certain  deposits  of  economic  value. 
He  must  acquire  the  ability  to  determine  the  geologic  age 
of  a formation  on  evidences  presented  by  order  of  super- 
position, fossil  remains,  or  sometimes  by  occurrences  of 
particular  minerals  which  have  been  found  associated 
only  with  certain  other  minerals  or  with  rocks  of  a 
certain  age. 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


109 


For  example,  the  great  deposits  of  haematite  and 
magnetite  ores  of  iron  are  found  only  in  certain  formations 
older  than  any  containing  fossils  ; hence  there  is  no  hope 
in  the  search  for  such  deposits,  except  in  such  forma- 
tions. Such  a pre-fossiliferous  formation  is  likely  to  be 
sub-crystalline,  and  to  occur  in  a region  of  considerable 
disturbance.  If  any  continuous  and  general  dip  among 
formations  exists,  true  crystalline  rocks  will  be  likely  to 
appear  in  one  direction,  and  feebly  crystalline  rocks  in  the 
opposite  direction,  and  beyond  these,  fossiliferous  rocks. 
The  iron-bearing  beds  will  dip  beneath  the  fossiliferous 
strata,  but  will  overlie  the  crystalline  formations. 

The  azoic  rocks,  dating  from  periods  before  the  advent 
of  life  on  the  earth,  sometimes  include  black  slates. 
These  have  a resemblance  to  slates  found  associated  with 
coal ; but  the  geologist  will  know  how  to  distinguish  them 
from  such  slates.  They  occupy  a lower  position  in 
stratigraphical  order,  though  upheavals  have  often  raised 
them  to  the  summits  of  hills  and  mountains.  Moreover, 
slates  associated  with  coal  generally  contain  certain 
vegetable  remains,  or  traces  of  vegetation,  which  indicate 
a higher  stratigraphical  position  than  most  slates  entirely 
destitute  of  organic  remains. 

So  in  the  search  for  petroleum,  gas  and  salt.  After 
the  geologist  has  learned  by  observation  what  formations 
these  products  are  associated  with,  he  restricts  his 
search  for  them  within  these  formations.*  This,  how- 
ever, is  no  proof  that  such  products  will  nowhere  be 
found  in  other  formations.  The  different  formations  or 
terranes  are  recognized  by  the  geologist  by  means  of 

*The  author  has  treated  the  geology  of  these  products  in  Geological 
Studies , pp.  186-202. 


110 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


certain  characters  which  they  bear,  and  among  these  the 
most  available  are  their  fossil  remains.  But  very  gener- 
ally the  order  of  superposition  of  adjacent  terranes  may 
also  be  observed.  Thus,  in  central  New  York  it  is 
observed  that  certain  shales  associated  with  the  brine 
supply  dip  southward  under  the  limestone  of  Onondaga 
county.  Hence  geologists,  fifteen  years  ago,  suggested 
the  probable  occurrence  of  rock-salt  at  the  depth  of  a 
thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  feet,  in  the  region  south  of 
the  Erie  canal.  All  the  world  understands  that  such 
deposits  have  actually  been  found  within  four  or  five 
years.  In  the  same  manner,  in  Michigan,  as  soon  as  it 
was  ascertained  that  the  strata  of  the  lower  peninsula 
are  arranged  in  the  manner  of  a nest  of  dishes,  it  was 
announced  as  a geological  deduction  that  the  salt  and 
gypsum  beds  in  the  western  part  of  the  state,  near 
Grand  Eapids,  must  come  to  the  surface  again  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state.  Observation  has  verified  the 
deduction,  and  an  important  gypsum  industry  has  grown 
up  as  a consequence.  On  the  same  basis  of  facts, 
geology  indicated  the  Saginaw  valley  as  underlaid  by  the 
deepest  portion  of  the  salt  and  gypsum  basin,  and  there- 
fore the  most  favorable  region  for  salt-borings.  The  vast 
salt  industry  of  the  Saginaw  valley,  subsequently  devel- 
oped, illustrates  the  soundness  of  such  reasoning. 

The  search  for  artesian  waters  is  guided  by  principles 
partly  geological  and  partly  mechanical.  Whether  a 
boring  for  fresh  water  will  succeed  at  a particular  spot 
depends  on  the  existence  beneath  the  surface,  of  a porous 
or  water-bearing  terrane,  whose  outcrop  at  the  surface 
takes  place  at  a higher  level  topographically  than  the 
place  of  the  proposed  boring.  Whether  a porous  forma- 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION. 


Ill 


tion  underlies  is  a geological  question.  Its  place  of  out- 
crop is  a geological  question.  At  a certain  position  in  the 
Cretaceous  strata  of  middle  Alabama,  is  a thick  sandy 
stratum.  This  is  found  at  the  surface  in  many  places  in 
Greene  county.  As  the  Cretaceous  rocks  dip  gently  south- 
ward, the  sandy  stratum  must  underlie  the  counties  of 
Marengo  and  Dallas,  lying  southward  from  Greene. 
Accordingly  these  counties  are  dotted  with  artesian  wells. 
The  water  which  overflows,  fell  on  the  surface  in  Greene, 
Hale,  and  other  regions  along  the  belt  of  outcrop  of  the 
water-bearing  stratum.  At  Ann  Arbor,  the  evidence 
from  geology  is  that  the  attempt  at  an  artesian  well  would 
not  succeed.  No  underlying  porous  stratum  exists  whose 
outcrop  is  at  a higher  level  than  the  surface.  Underlying 
porous  strata  there  are,  but  Ann  Arbor  is  in  one  of  the 
most  elevated  regions  of  the  state,  and  the  outcrops  of  those 
strata  being  nearer  the  lake  borders  of  the  peninsula,  are 
at  levels  below  Ann  Arbor.  The  directions  of  the  streams 
are  evidence  of  this.  If  those  strata  therefore,  contained 
fresh  water,  there  could  exist  no  head  to  force  it  to  the 
surface  at  the  University  City.  But  those  strata  cannot 
contain  fresh  water,  because  they  are  rocky  dishes  with 
their  borders  elevated  above  their  depressed  centres,  and 
hence  hold  all,  or  most,  of  the  saline  matter  which  the 
ancient  ocean  left  in  them.  They  are  stored  with  brine, 
therefore,  but  the  brine  cannot  rise  to  the  surface.  All 
these  deductions  were  verified  by  an  actual  artesian  boring 
at  Ann  Arbor. 

Geology  has  ascertained  the  regions  in  which  artesian 
wells  may  be  successful ; or  is  capable  of  ascertaining 
them.  It  pointed  out  the  possibility  of  such  wells  at 
Chicago,  and  at  other  points  along  the  eastern  shore  of 


112 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Illinois  and  Wisconsin.  The  supplies  in  this  region, 
spring  from  the  Potsdam  sandstone,  whose  outcrop  exists 
along  the  more  elevated  interior.  Geology  has  pointed 
out  regions  now  desert  in  which  by  means  of  artesian 
borings,  water  may  be  obtained  for  irrigation.  The  great 
Sutro  tunnel  is  in  principle  an  artesian  well,  which  might 
be  applied  to  warming  dwellings  or  greenhouses,  or  forc- 
ing crops  of  vegetables. 

Such  illustrations  are  cited  onjy  to  render  intelligible 
some  of  the  general  principles  on  which  geology  becomes 
subservient  to  the  ends  of  our  civilization.  But  other 
service  is  rendered  in  the  exposure  of  dishonest  or  ill- 
advised  undertakings.  I recall  the  excitement  and  cha- 
grin occasioned  a few  years  ago,  when  Clarence  King 
revealed  the  dishonesty  of  certain  gold-mining  specula- 
tions in  California. 

It  was  only  a few  days  ago  that  Professor  Branner 
brought  consternation  to  a series  of  fraudulent  organiza- 
tions in  Arkansas,  in  which  innocent  investors  had  been 
induced  by  misleading  representations,  to  purchase  value- 
less stocks.  These  enterprises  were  located  in  Garland 
and  adjoining  counties,  and  had  been  capitalized  at  one 
hundred  and  eleven  millions  of  dollars.  Dr.  Branner 
reports,  after  a careful  survey,  that  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  a single  one  of  the  forty  gold  mines  of  Arkansas 
has  ever  legitimately  returned  an  ounce  of  gold. 

In  the  recent  wide-spread  craze  over  the  search  for  gas. 
we  have  seen  manufacturing  companies  sink  wells  at  the 
cost  of  thousands  of  dollars,  in  search  of  the  “Trenton 
Limestone/''  in  districts  where  that  formation  was  either 
beyond  reach,  or  so  situated  as  to  afford  no  comparison 
with  regions  already  productive.  During  the  oil  excite- 


GEOLOGY  AND  MODERN  CIVILIZATION.  113 

ment,  enterprises  were  inaugurated  in  hundreds  of  dis- 
tricts lacking  in  the  requisite  geological  indications,  and 
in  which  geologic  advice  saved  many  thousands  of  dollars. 
And  yet  there  were  too  many  other  instances  in  which 
competent  advice  was  not  asked,  or  was  asked  and 
spurned,  with  loss  of  the  investment.  I have  seen  pits 
dug  for  coal  in  the  black  slates  of  the  Taconic  system, 
and  I have  seen  self-confident  speculators  journeying  to 
New  York  to  obtain  assays  of  “ores”  which  geology 
recognized  at  once,  as  merely  “fool's  gold”;  and  in 
numberless  other  cases,  I have  been  able  to  forestall  con- 
templated investments  by  the  identification  of  that  seduc- 
tive mineral,  iron  pyrites,  and  the  declaration  of  its 
worthlessness. 

In  the  extension  of  knowledge,  geology  does  not  serve 
an  end  directly  utilitarian ; but  by  all  increase  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  phenomena  of  nature,  man  acquires  control 
over  her  forces,  or  learns  better  how  to  protect  himself 
against  their  disastrous  effects.  To  extend  our  knowledge 
of  the  causes  and  modes  of  action  of  earthquakes  is  to 
suggest  improved  methods  of  security  against  destructive 
occurrences  In  many  respects,  the  knowledge  attained 
through  geologic  research  possesses  no  direct  cultural 
value,  and  finds  no  economic  applications,  but  it  brings 
largeness  of  view,  and  truer  apprehensions  of  the  relations 
of  man  and  the  world  to  the  totality  of  the  scheme  of 
existence.  It  thus  has  a moral  value,  though  the  influ- 
ence is  not  directly  in  the  line  of  moral  culture.  To 
arrive  at  j uster  views  concerning  the  age  of  man  or  of  the 
world  is  not,  as  a knowledge-result,  to  augment  our  power 
of  creating  wealth,  or  to  contribute  to  intellectual  or 
ethical  culture.  But  such  knowledge  sheds  light  on  great 


8 


114 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  'i 


moral  and  religious  questions  connected  with  current 
faiths,  and  brings  us  into  juster  relations  with  moral  and 
religious  truth.  It  is  a real  advance  in  the  condition  of 
man.  Geological  knowledge  thus,  indirectly  helpful  in 
the  advance  of  our  race,  claims  a due  share  of  our  regard. 


IX. 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OE  STUDIES. 


N previous  pages  I have  endeavored  to  show  that 


geologic  study  calls  into  exercise  a diversified  range 
of  mental  powers.  Beginning  with  the  percipient  facul- 
ties, which  gather  the  elementary  data  of  geological 
reasoning,  it  advances  to  the  exercise  of  the  inductive 
faculties,  the  verbal  memory,  the  philosophic  memory, 
the  imagination,  and  finally  the  deductive  faculty.  I 
have  shown  also,  that  geologic  study  and  geologic  infor- 
mation exert  necessarily  a very  important  ethical  influence 
upon  the  mind  and  the  life.  And  I have  shown,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  training  and  cultural  results  of  the  study,  it 
brings  to  us  knowledge  of  practical  value,  and  much 
which  enters  into  the  constitution  of  our  modern  civiliza- 
tion. I wish  here  to  present  reasons  why  the  acquisition 
of  this  culture,  this  ethical  result,  this  useful  knowledge, 
should  be  begun  in  early  life. 

It  is  a truth  so  familiar  as  to  be  a truism,  that  child- 
hood is  the  period  for  observation  ; maturity,  for  reflec- 
tion. Widely  as  this  principle  has  been  recognized  in  the 
history  of  educational  systems,  a strange  perversion  has 
characterized  the  practices  of  the  prevailing  systems  in 
all  times.  Thought,  reflection,  abstraction,  verbal  mem- 
orizing, have  been  pressed  as  chief  duties  upon  the  child. 
It  is  thought  which  rules  the  world,  it  is  said.  Life  is 
empty  without  thought.  A being  without  reflection  is  a 
brute  or  an  idiot.  Therefore  thought  is  the  most 


115 


116 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


important  thing,  the  chief  thing  in  education,  and 
evidently  ought  to  be  the  first  thing.  Malebranche  says, 
“souls  have  no  age,”  and  “the  first  thing  to  do  is 
to  nourish  the  child  on  abstract  truths.”  Quintilian 
would  have  the  child  first  learn  grammar  and  Greek. 
Rabelais  puts  Greek  in  the  first  place.  The  Jesuits 
devoted  childhood  and  youth  to  Latin.  This  was  also 
the  system  of  Rollin.  With  Whewell,  dead  languages 
possess  transcendent  importance.  That  is  the  colonial 
idea  in  New  England ; and  most  of  our  classical 
instructors  still  insist  that  the  most  perfect  culture  is 
only  acquired  by  beginning  Latin  as  early  as  ten,  and 
continuing  till  twenty  or  older.  * Payne  calls  the  doctrine 
of  the  prior  order  of  sensible  things  “a  new  superstition 
in  educational  theory,” f and  reminds  us  “that  intellect- 
ual inertness  amounting  almost  to  stupidity,  is  frequently 
the  concomitant  of  an  acute  and  persistent  sense-train- 
ing ; ” and  cites  “ savage  tribes  as  historical  illustrations 
of  what  has  been  produced  on  a large  scale  by  ‘ following 
nature.’  ”J  Pestalozzi  in  a sort  of  craze  for  demonstra- 
tions, would  abandon  a large  share  of  the  time  to  arith- 
metic and  geometry, § while  Condillac  would  begin  with 
metaphysics. 

*The  present  writer  was  disciplined  on  Adams’  Latin  Grammar  at 
twelve,  and  trained  up  on  Andrews  and  Stoddard  till  twenty-two. 

t Compavrd,  p.  107,  note. 

tCompayrd,  p.  2,  note. 

§ Undoubtedly  many  children  possess  marked  aptitude  for  numbers,  and 
I think  nature  in  this  way,  points  out  a line  of  training  for  success.  But 
the  intuition  for  numbers  must  not  be  understood  as  the  dawning  of  a 
power  for  higher  mathematics.  The  present  writer  recited  the  “ multiplica- 
tion-table” complete  at  the  age  of  five,  and  had  “ciphered " through 
Willett's  school  arithmetic  at  ten,  but  never  possessed  readiness  in  mental 
calculations.  There  is  little  valuable  discipline  in  mental  arithmetic.  It 
disciplines  none  of  the  leading  mental  powers.  Great  facility  with  numbers 
does  not  involve  thought.  Nor  is  it  of  much  utility  in  ordinary  life.  It  is 
a valuable  gift  for  a keeper  of  accounts. 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


117 


By  a revulsion  from  sucli  extremes,  Rousseau  would 
have  nothing  whatever  learned  from  books  ; and  Pestalozzi, 
with  that  extravagance  and  unreason  which  is  the  besetting 
sin  of  reformers,  banished  all  reflection,  and  led  his  pupils 
no  farther  than  the  world  of  sense  ; while  the  effort  of 
Froebel  consisted  chiefly  in  bringing  into  method  and 
system  the  sense  intuitions  the  primacy  of  which 
Pestalozzi  discovered  as  with  a lantern,  but  could  not 
bring  into  orderly  working  relations  with  the  other 
mental  powers. 

More  rational  conceptions  of  the  place  of  sense-per- 
ceptions have  been  entertained  by  many  authorities 
worthy  of  our  respect.  Eabelais  caught  “ a glimpse  of 
the  future  reserved  to  scientific  education  and  to  the 
study  of  nature,”  and  was  certainly  “ the  first  in  point  of 
time,  of  that  grand  school  of  educators  who  place  the 
sciences  in  the  first  rank  among  the  studies  worthy  of 
human  thought.”*  Comenius,  a prince  among  educational 
thinkers,  asks:  “ Why,  in  place  of  dead  books,  should 

we  not  open  the  living  book  of  nature  ? * * * To 

instruct  the  young  is  not  to  beat  into  them  by  repetition, 
a mass  of  words,  phrases,  sentences  and  opinions  gath- 
ered out  of  authors  ; but  it  is  to  open  their  understanding 
through  things.  * * * Instruction  should  commence 

with  a real  observation  of  things,  and  not  with  a verbal 
description  of  them.”f  Xicole,  one  of  the  writers  of  the 
Port  Royal  School,  with  exact  truth  says:  “The 

intelligence  of  children  always  being  very  dependent  on 

*Compayr£.  History  of  Pedagogy.  Payne's  tr.,  pp.  91.  96. 

t Comenius:  Orbis  sensualium  pictus— the  illustrated  world  of  sensible 
objects  [1658].  This  is  the  “ Janua  linguarum  accompanied  with  pictures  in 
lieu  of  real  objects,  representing  to  the  child  the  things  that  he  hears  spoken 
of,  as  fast  as  he  can  learn  their  names.” 


118 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


their  senses,  we  must  so  far  as  possible,  address  our 
instruction  to  the  senses,  and  cause  it  to  reach  the  mind, 
not  only  through  hearing,  but  also  through  seeing.  ”* 
Bonneval  claimed  for  children  the  education  of  the 
senses.  La  Chalotais  indicts  the  established  system  as 
“ that  narrow  education  and  that  repulsive  and  austere 
discipline,”  “which  seems  made  only  to  abase  the  spirit,” 
and  that  “sterile  and  insipid  teaching”  as  something 
whose  most  usual  effect  is  to  “ make  study  hated  for 
life.”  “Let  children,”  he  says,  “be  shown  many 
objects ; let  there  be  a variety  of  such,  and  let  them  be 
shown  under  many  aspects,  and  on  various  occasions. 
The  memory  and  imagination  of  children  cannot  be  over- 
charged with  useful  facts  and  ideas,  of  which  they  can 
make  use  in  the  course  of  their  lives.”  f La  Chalotais 
was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  revolt  against  the  educa- 
tional system  so  long  used  by  the  Jesuits  to  tyrannize 
over  the  intelligence  of  Europe.  Lakanal,  of  the  “ Con- 
vention,” represents  the  survival  of  this  spirit  of  a new 
education.  He  recommended  the  method  which  consists 
“in  first  appealing  to  the  eyes  of  pupils,  * * * in 

creating  the  understanding  through  the  senses  * * * 

in  developing  morals  out  of  the  sensibility,  just  as  under- 
standing out  of  sensation.”  \ 

* Nicole : On  the  Education  of  a Prince , quoted  from  CompayrC 

t La  Chalotais:  Essai  d' Education  nationale  [1763], 

t Quoted  from  Com  pay  rC  In  reproducing  these  passages,  I wish  to  dis- 
claim the  doctrine  that  the  understanding  is  built  out  of  sensations.  I hold 
with  Hamilton,  as  against  Locke,  to  the  existence  of  inborn  principles  of 
reasoning,  constitutionally  independent  of  sensations.  But  not  formed  for 
independent  activity,  they  wait  on  the  occasions  presented  by  sensations. 
And  thus  it  happens,  that  the  preexistenee  of  sensations  calls  into  exercise 
the  higher  powers  of  conception  and  judgment.  This  is  the  view  under 
which  the  early  education  of  the  senses  is  advocated  in  the  present  con- 
nection. To  suppose  that  sense-training  without  reflection  is  education,  is 
the  weakness  of  Pestalozzi ; and  to  suppose  that  the  modem  reform  aims  at 
this,  is  the  weakness  of  certain  modern  philosophers. 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


119 


The  corresponding  views  of  Spencer  and  Bain  are  so 
well  known  that  I desist  from  citations.  With  reference 
to  these  writers  I will  only  remark  that  it  seems  to  me 
they  betray  tendencies  to  an  extreme  which  time  and 
experience  will  not  sanction  ; and  they  thus  illustrate  the 
foibles  of  all  reformers  who  mount  a hobby  which  runs 
away  with  them. 

It  is  my  leading  purpose,  as  announced,  in  considering 
the  proper  place  for  geological  study,  to  bring  forward 
the  reasons  which  justify  the  thinkers  whose  views  on  the 
early  training  of  the  senses  I have  just  quoted.  The 
most  obvious  reason,  and  the  most  cogent,  is  that  which 
is  most  generally  ignored.  It  is  that  the  observing 
powers  of  the  mind  are  the  ones  first  developed  into 
efficient  activity,  while  geological  studies  begin  with  the 
presentation  of  objects  for  these  powers.  It  seems  almost 
a platitude  to  say  that  a child’s  studies  should  be  such 
as  are  best  suited  to  his  stage  of  mental  development.  It 
is  impossible  to  argue  the  point  without  falling  into 
puerilities.  By  what  name  then  shall  we  call  an  educa- 
tion— a prevailing  system  of  education,  which  is  organized 
and  conducted  as  if  this  truism  were  not  a fundamental 
truth  of  educational  philosophy?  It  is  even  admitted  in 
words  by  philosophers  who  ignore  it  and  belie  it  in  their 
systems.  One  of  the  very  arguments  with  which  they 
oppose  early  sense-education,  is  the  allegation  that  it  is 
not  new — that  it  is  as  old  as  Moses  * — and  yet  it  seems 
these  theorists  require  more  time  for  consideration  of  its 
claims.  If  then,  sense-education  has  been  signalized  by 
the  author  of  our  human  constitution  as  most  appropriate 

* Compare  Payne:  Contributions  to  the  Science  of  Education , ch.  vi. 
especially  p.  117.  Yet  this  is  Payne's  -‘new  superstition  in  educational 
theory.” 


120 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


for  childhood,  by  what  reasoning  do  we  sanction  the 
engrossing  occupation  of  the  early  years  of  school  train- 
ing with  book  study  and  the  abstractions  of  arithmetic 
and  grammars  of  languages  living  and  dead  ? I do  not 
demur  at  short  exercises  in  these  things,  lengthening  as 
the  years  lengthen,  for  I know  that  memory  and  under- 
standing dawn  also  at  an  early  age.  It  is  the  total  exclu- 
sion of  the  sciences  of  observation  which  constitutes  the 
breach  of  nature’s  canon  fixing  a natural  order  of  studies 
in  education.*  To  the  existence  of  this  illogical  feature 
of  prevailing  education  I would  direct  the  candid  atten- 
tion of  teachers. 

I desire  to  emphasize  in  passing,  a psychological  truth 
to  which  I have  heretofore  alluded.  It  is  not  imagined 
that  the  senses  of  the  child  will  come  into  exercise  with- 
out awakening  the  powers  of  reflection.  If  we  sujypose 
the  senses  under  exercise  by  a rational  being,  higher 
powers  will  spring  into  incipient  and  progressive  activity. 
It  is  impossible  to  observe  without  some  thought — 
unless  we  look  with  the  eyes  of  a brute  or  an  idiot  or  a 
savage.  As  soon  as  the  child  has  made  two  cognate  obser- 
vations, he  becomes  conscious  of  that  fact.  lie  reflects. 
On  accumulating  observations  cognate  with  these,  he 
involuntarily  unifies  them  through  processes  of  com- 
parison and  reflection.  Then  the  intuition  of  cause 
comes  into  play — hut  not  into  consciousness.  He  is 
impressed  by  evidence  of  a community  of  cause  or 
occasion  for  all  the  phenomena  of  the  group.  And  then, 
before  he  is  aware  of  it,  he  begins  to  conceive  all  those 

* Minds  possessed  of  judicial  balance  will  continue  to  employ  these 
significant  and  useful  terms,  notwithstanding  the  opprobrium  thrown 
upon  them  by  some  modern  criticisms  of  a loose  and  somewhat  dis- 
ingenuous style. 


GEOLOGY  IX  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


121 


phenomena  as  standing  in  a common  relation  to  some 
cause,  occasion,  or  condition.  That  is,  he  generalizes. 
The  rational  being  never  ceases  to  abstract,  compare, 
judge  and  draw  general  inferences.  It  is  easy  to  show 
that  the  rational  being  begins  at  a tender  age  to  unfold 
inferences  by  deduction  from  generalized  principles. 
But  these  earlier  exercises  of  the  higher  powers  are 
spontaneous  and  unwearying.  They  are  sustained  by 
sense-perceptions,  and  their  existence  is  conditioned  on 
the  prior  existence  of  these.  Thus  the  stimulation  of 
the  senses  is  not  a sense-education  exclusively,  and 
cannot  be ; and  those  who  deprecate  sense-education 
and  preach  “ideas — ideas,”  plainly  expose  the  dominion 
of  a defective  psychology.  And  when  they  attempt  to 
belittle  the  value  of  sense-education  by  pointing  to  the 
savage  who  has  a life-long  and  exclusive  sense-education, 
as  an  adequate  illustration  of  the  error  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  prior  education  of  the  percipient  faculties,  it  is 
obvious  that  the  nature  of  sense-education  is  entirely 
misconceived.*  To  see  is  more  than  to  converge  rays  of 
light  behind  a lens,  and  form  an  image  on  a screen.  To 
see  is  to  be  capable  of  the  intellectual  affections  which 

* “ A prolonged  and  acute  training  of  the  senses  is  irrational  in  its 
tendency;  it  magnifies  the  animal,  and  minimizes  the  man.  * * * The 
savage  is  a living  example  of  persistent  sense-training.” — Payne:  Con- 
tributions to  the  Science  of  Education , p.  82. 

“ An  inquiry  into  the  mental  condition  of  savages  will  show  that, 
concurrent  with  the  acutest  sense-training,  there  is  intellectual  ineptness 
amounting  almost  to  stupidity.  This  conjunction  raises  the  query  whether 
the  modern  doctrine  as  to  the  effect  of  sense-training  on  intelligence  is  well 
founded.  The  fact  just  cited  at  least  permits  a reasonable  doubt  on  this 
point.” — lb.,  p.  27. 

“Savage  tribes  are  historical  illustrations  of  what  has  been  produced  on 
a large  scale  by  ‘following  nature.'  "—Payne,  note  in  Compayr6's  History  of 
Pedagogy,  p.  2.  If  nature  gives  no  signs  of  resentment  at  the  libel,  I can 
allow  my  high  personal  respect  for  the  author  to  restrain  me  from  impeach- 
ing the  statement  as  a little  disingenuous. 


122 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


ensue  when  the  screen  is  the  retina  of  a conscious  being. 
The  fulness  of  seeing  exists  when  the  conscious  being  is  a 
rational  soul.  Advance  through  the  contributions  of 
perception  cannot  be  expected  unless  the}’  be  planted  in  a 
good  intellectual  soil ; and  if  so  planted,  the  advance 
cannot  be  prevented.  To  this  purport  I beg  to  quote  an 
author  summoned  by  Chancellor  Payne  to  do  service  of  a 
contrary  kind:  “The  highest  manifestations  of  intel- 

lect,” says  Sully,  “abstract  thought  and  reasoning, 
illustrate  this  dependence  of  intellectual  activity  on  the 
elements,  materials  or  ‘data’  of  sense.  The  growth  of 
intellect  by  repeated  exercise  thus  implies  a continual 
supply  of  sense-material,  a multiplication  of  sense-impres- 
sions, to  be  worked  up  into  intellectual  products.”*  If 
then,  the  supply  of  sense-material  in  the  mind  of  a savage 
is  not  accompanied  by  advance  of  the  higher  intelligence, 
this  is  due,  (1)  To  the  poor  quality  of  his  intelligence; 

(2)  To  the  absence  of  educational  guides  and  prompters; 

(3)  To  the  lack  of  a written  language  through  which  he 
may  profit  by  the  capitalized  experiences  and  reflections 
of  his  ancestors.  To  dispense  with  teachers  and  written 
records  has  never  been  conceived  by  those  who  advise  us 
to  follow  “nature”  in  the  order  of  studies. 

The  attentive  reader  will  notice  another  disingenuous 
feature  in  the  quotations  made.  It  is  held  that  “a 
prolonged  and  acute  training  of  the  senses  is  irrational 
in  its  tendency.”  “ The  savage  is  a living  example  of 
persistent  sense-training.”  The  writer,  if  we  take  the 
letter  of  his  language,  condemns  something  which  is  not 
advocated.  To  give  the  senses  fair  play  is  quite  different 
from  subjecting  them  to  a “severe”  and  “persistent” 

* Sully : Outlines  of  Psychology , .p.  48. 


GEOLOGY  IX  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES.  123 

training  to  the  exclusion  of  reflection.  This  is  another 
victory  over  the  celebrated  “ man  of  straw.” 

If  there  is  another  characteristic  of  early  life  equally 
prominent  with  love  of  sensible  activity,  it  is  the  love 
of  physical  activity.  'This  being  so,  studies  should  be 
selected  with  a view  to  securing  opportunities  for  bodily 
exercise.  This  again,  is  only  a truism  ; but  this  is  a 
truism  quite  forgotten  save  in  the  kindergarten.  Geo- 
logical study  provides  occasions  for  excursions  ; calls  the 
hammer  into  use  in  breaking  off  and  “ dressing  up  ” 
specimens,  calls  muscle  into  action  in  bearing  them 
home,  in  providing  drawers  or  cases  to  receive  them,  and 
in  moving  and  arranging  them  as  the  progress  of  study 
requires.  The  child  who  can  move  his  body  and  work 
his  muscles  while  he  observes  and  thinks,  is  better  com- 
plying with  the  commands  of  his  nature  than  he  who 
sits  pinned  to  a hard  bench  with  solemn  injunctions 
hanging  over  him. 

The  attention  of  the  child  is  best  controlled  by  the 
presence  of  concrete  things.  The  child’s  attention  is 
notoriously  volatile.  It  is  difficult  to  fix  it  on  an  abstrac- 
tion ; but  a material  object  controls  the  eye,  and  that 
controls  attention.  “ One  of  the  reasons  which  best 
justify  the  use  of  object  lessons,”  says  Compayre,  “ is 
that  they  are  based  directly  on  this  fundamental  prin- 
cqile,  that  it  is  best  to  exercise  the  attention  on  concrete 
and  sensible  objects,  before  applying  it  to  abstractions.”* 
Thus  the  search  for  a quartz  constituent  in  a crystalline 
rock  will  fix  the  attention  incomparably  better  than  the 
attempt  to  recite  a passage  from  Green’s  History  of  the 
English  People.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  too,  that  the 


*C'ompayr<;:  Lectures  on  Pedagogy , Payne's  tr.,  p.  103. 


124 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


very  motion  attendant  on  the  work  of  observation  is  a 
further  aid  to  the  control  of  attention.  This  is  one  of 
the  secrets  of  the  kindergarten.  Here  again,  the  best  I 
can  do  is  to  quote  from  the  same  authority:  “Observe  the 
child  who  is  repeating  his  lesson.  It  is  impossible  for 
him  to  stand  still ; his  eyes  wander  to  the  ceiling,  to  the 
right,  to  the  left;  his  legs,  his  arms,  his  whole  body  is 
in  motion.  * * * In  a word,  the  child  has  need  of 

movement  even  when  he  is  studying.”*  Now,  these  mean- 
ingless movements  are  entirely  apart  from  his  lesson.  If. 
however,  they  are  suggested  or  demanded  by  the  subject 
on  which  the  attention  is  to  be  fixed,  their  effect  on  atten- 
tion might  be  much  more  controlling. 

A wise  reason,  as  it  seems  to  me,  for  the  preference  of 
geological  study  over  studies  of  a sedentary  and  more 
bookish  character,  is  the  delight  which  the  student  expe- 
riences in  the  observational  kind  of  study,  f Such  delight 
is  experienced  at  all  stages  of  life,  because  it  is  generally 
less  wearying  to  give  attention  and  thought  to  concrete 
themes  than  to  abstract  ones.  But  it  becomes  the  greater 
as  the  student  is  nearer  the  stage  of  life  when  observation 
is  the  characteristic  activity  of  the  mind.  I have  never 
known  the  student  of  any  age  to  pursue  the  subject  by 
the  observational  method  without  experiencing  great  sat- 
isfaction. More  often,  the  work  is  described  as  delight- 
ful. Boys  and  girls  in  the  Ann  Arbor  Grammar  School 
have  no  need  of  declaring  their  pleasure  in  the  element- 

* Compayr6:  op.  cit.,  p.  104. 

+ The  spirit  of  the  prevailing  education  is  expressed  as  follows  : "The 
public  school  aims  at  information  as  well  as  discipline ; it  cultivates  reflec- 
tion even  more  than  observation;  where  spontaneity  fails  to  enlist  the 
pupil’s  efforts  in  prescribed  lines,  it  resorts  to  enforced  activity ; when  attrac- 
tive motives  fail,  it  employs  some  sort  of  painful  stimulation : it  purposes  to 
inform  or  furnish  the  mind  through  the  interpretation  of  books."— Payne: 
Science  of  Education,  p.  130. 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


125 


ary  study  of  geology.*  since  tlieir  zeal  and  interest  are 
expressed  in  their  faces,  and  in  the  industry  with  which 
they  strive  to  enlarge  the  store  of  their  obsevations.  f It 
is  proper  here  to  again  remind  the  reader  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  infer  that  the  pleasure  of  learning  by  obser- 
vation arises  solely  from  the  exercise  of  the  perceptive 
faculties  and  the  ease  with  which  the  attention  is  fixed  on 
concrete  objects.  There  is  as  much  reason  to  believe  that 
delight  arises  with  the  exercise  of  the  reflective  powers 
which  perception  wakens  into  activity.  On  these  themes, 
the  data  of  which  are  held  before  attention  so  easily  and 
so  steadily,  the  thinking  faculty  acts  with  clearness  of 
conception  and  jileasurable  stimulation.  It  is  reasonable 
to  insist,  therefore,  that  part  of  the  pleasure  which  accom- 
panies seeing  is  the  pleasure  of  thinking.  How  grandly 
this  view  of  observational  culture  rises  above  that  which 
contemplates  it  as  a mere  animal  activity. 

The  nature  of  the  pleasure  experienced  during  observa- 
tional study,  deserves  a still  closer  scrutiny.  A peculiar 
pleasure  accompanies  the  discovery  of  truth.  That  which 

* Under  the  instruction  of  Eliza  Ladd. 

1 1 beg  to  append  here  part  of  a communication  from  Rev.  J.  T.  Sunder- 
land, of  Ann  Arbor,  under  date  of  December  1,  1886.  “I  have  a son  of 
thirteen,”  he  says,  “and  a daughter  of  eleven  who,  through  the  influence  of 
your  books,  in  the  hands  of  a good  teacher,  have  become  deeply  interested  in 
geological  study.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  boy.  A year  ago  he  was 
given  in  school,  a term  upon  your  ‘ Excursions,’  and  to  my  surprise,  I found 
him  within  two  weeks,  more  eager  to  find  out  the  marvels  which  the  book 
reveals  in  garden  and  field,  than  to  play  ball  or  marbles.  Nor  does  the  inter- 
est show  any  sign  of  waning.  Every  spare  hour  he  can  get  he  is  either 
digging  into  some  book  on  geology  or  out  ivith  his  hammer  looking  for 
1 specimens.’ 

“ I am  convinced  that  there  is  no  scientific  study  better  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  children  than  geology,  partly  because  it  is  capable  of  being  made 
so  interesting,  even  to  the  very  young,  and  partly  because  it  takes  them  out 
of  doors  so  much,  and  affords  so  much  training  for  the  hands  and  the  eye.” 
A great  amount  of  similar  testimony  is  at  hand  from  various  parts  of  our 
country. 


126 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


is  learned  by  independent  search,  whether  perceptive  or 
reflective,  is  an  original  discovery,  and  brings  a peculiar 
intellectual  delight.  No  scholar  or  student  can  fail  to 
understand  this.  In  the  progress  of  observational  study, 
every  new  observation  is  of  the  nature  of  a new  discovery, 
and  every  new  conception  is  also  of  the  nature  of  a new 
discovery.  These  are  discoveries  pure  and  simple  only  in 
proportion  as  the  observer  and  thinker  has  proceeded 
without  external  prompting.  But  unless  the  prompting 
has  been  of  such  unwise  character  as  to  take  the  pupil’s 
mind  off  its  feet,  and  literally  bear  it  along,  there  still 
remains  an  element  of  discovery,  which  is  accompanied  by 
a portion  of  the  discoverer’s  delight.  Thus  the  pleasure 
which  accompanies  observational  study  is  derived,  (1) 
From  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  organs;  (2)  From  the 
exercise  of  the  senses;  (3)  From  the  exercise  of  the 
reflective  powers;  (4)  From  the  process  of  the  discovery 
of  truth  new  to  the  learner. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  that  this  is 
largely  intellectual  delight — not  a pleasurable  state  of  the 
ordinary  emotions.  It  is  the  essential  constituent  of 
enthusiasm.  A student  experiencing  one  or  more  of  these 
forms  or  sources  of  delight  is  in  the  condition  styled 
enthusiastic.  Every  one  recognizes  it  as  a sound  psy- 
chologic, and  therefore,  sound  j)edagogic,  principle,  that 
enthusiasm  is  a motive  power;  and  therefore  an  enthusias- 
tic student  proceeds  nnder  a stronger  impulse,  and  conse- 
quently will  accomplish  more,  than  a student  destitute  of 
enthusiasm.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  enthusiasm  is  a 
pleasurable  state  of  mind  made  up  of  four  pleasures  sepa- 
rable in  thought.  It  must  thus  appear  that  the  most  suc- 
cessful pursuit  of  study  is  that  accompanied  by  the  pleas- 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


127 


urable  emotions  awakened  by  the  cognition  of  the  truths 
which  form  the  object  of  study.  So  far  certainly,  emo- 
tion and  intellection  are  not  only  compatible  with  each 
other,  but  mutually  creative. 

If,  however,  a boy  in  the  eager  and  interested  pursuit 
of  some  study  receives  intelligence  of  the  sudden  death  of 
his  mother,  a new  emotion  is  aroused,  which  takes  com- 
mand of  his  attention  and  his  thoughts,  and  of  course 
interferes  with  study.  So  if  a brass  band  passes  along 
the  street,  the  boy’s  attention  is  at  first  diverted,  and  then 
held  diverted  by  the  new  interest  felt  in  the  music,  the 
step,  the  glitter  of  the  instruments  and  the  uniform.  In 
a similar  way,  any  occasion  of  deep  emotion  takes  com- 
mand of  the  attention,  and  therefore  of  the  thoughts,  aud 
thus  incajiacitates  the  individual  for  thinking  on  themes 
not  connected  with  the  occasion.  This  incapacity  is  most 
complete  in  reference  to  themes  where  the  attention  needs 
to  be  most  exclusive  and  most  uninterrupted,  as  in  mathe- 
matical, metaphysical  and  other  abstract  reasonings.  It 
will  be  admitted  too,  that  intellectual  enthusiasm  based 
on  the  contemplation  of  any  theme,  may  rise  so  high  as 
to  propel  thought  and  speech  more  rapidly  than  the  logi- 
cal perceptions  are  able  to  take  note  of  the  congruities  or 
incongruities  in  the  associations  of  concepts,  or  the  legiti- 
macy of  the  relations  of  consecutiveness,  or  cause  and  con- 
sequence, in  the  concepts  which  rush  before  the  mind. 
The  simple  result  of  excess  of  enthusiasm  then,  is,  that 
statements  may  be  made  which,  by  not  being  duly  exam- 
ined and  criticised,  go  beyond  the  strict  truth.  In  other 
words,  enthusiasm  tends  to  exaggerate — whatever  may  be 
its  usefulness  in  warming  the  imagination,  improving  the 
style,  and  imparting  an  efficient  propulsive  power. 


128 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


But  do  such  exceptional  cases  of  the  antagonism  be- 
tween thought  and  emotion  justify  the  broad  statement 
of  some  recent  authors  that  emotional  interest  in  study 
should  be  kept  within  narrow  limits?  Can  it  be  logically 
inferred  that  the  ready  susceptibility  to  emotion  disquali- 
fies for  exact,  patient  and  prolonged  investigation?  It 
seems  to  me  the  inconsequence  is  so  obvious  that  it 
never  could  have  attained  standing  as  an  educational  dic- 
tum had  it  not  found  expression  under  the  authority  of 
respected  names.  Mr.  Bain  tells  us  the  normal  condition 
for  thinking  is  “the  quiescence  of  the  emotions.”  This 
evidently,  is  one  of  those  partial  truths  more  injurious  than 
error.  So  Chancellor  Payne  informs  us  that  “the  mutual 
exclusion  of  thought  and  feeling”  is  a “first  truth”  in 
psychology,  and  he  reminds  us  that  “the  direct  tendency 
of  mental  culture  is  to  weaken  the  empire  of  passions  and 
emotions” — a sentiment  which  taken  by  itself,  has  not 
been  called  in  question  since  the  age  of  Plato.  But  Mr. 
Payne  makes  it  an  adjunct  and  argument  in  support  of 
his  thesis  that  “Sense  activity  y;er  se  is  unfavorable  to 
thinking,”  and  that  this  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
“the  savage  is  a living  example  of  persistent  sense-train- 
ing.” These  phrases  are  as  conservative  as  the  utterances 
of  the  Delphic  Oracle.  But  they  are  employed  in  the 
progress  of  an  argument  the  obvious  effect  of  which  is  to 
discourage  early  observational  studies.  If  they  are  not  so 
intended,  they  have  little  connection  with  the  general  tenor 
of  the  discourse.  But  taken  as  utterances  without  such 
implication  they  are  platitudes.  Sense  activity  per  se  is 
nothing  but  sense  activity,  and  the  reader  needs  no  telling 
that  in  such  state  of  mind  no  thinking  goes  on.  As  a con- 
crete psychological  fact,  however,  there  is  no  sense  activity 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


129 


per  se — that  is  an  abstraction  of  thought.  Sense  activity 
is  always  accompanied  by  reflective  activity,  by  memory,  by 
imagination  and  by  sentiment;  and  sense  activity  quickens 
these  and  is  quickened  by  them.  Philosophically,  it  is  an 
idle  speculation  to  inquire  what  must  result  in  a percipi- 
ent being  which  only  perceives.  It  is  a truism  to  state  that 
when  only  the  senses  act,  there  is  no  memory  or  reflec- 
tion. It  is  as  fruitless  as  an  identical  equation.  Some- 
thing similar  comes  of  an  analysis  of  the  dogma  that 
“thought  and  feeling  are  mutually  exclusive.”  If  this  is 
strictly  true,  they  cannot  coexist,  but  we  know  that  they 
do  coexist,  and  in  many  cases  are  mutually  stimulative. 
If  the  dogma  then  is  not  true  as  a psychologic  and  peda- 
gogic fact,  it  can  only  be  true  as  an  absti’act  conception — 
that  is,  thought  per  se  or  pure  thought  is  exclusive  of 
feeling  per  se  or  pure  feeling.  This  is  merely  another 
truism. 

It  now  seems  evident  from  this  examination,  that  it  is 
not  a “first  principle”  in  psychology  that  “thought  and 
feeling  are  mutually  exclusive,”  but  that  the  truth  lies  in 
enunciations  somewhat  like  the  following  : 

Feeling  interferes  with  thought  when  its  cause  is  incon- 
gruous with  the  subject  of  thought.  It  then  diverts 
attention  from  the  subject  of  thought. 

Feeling  promotes  thought  when  its  cause  exists  in  the 
subject  of  thought.  It  then  fixes  attention  on  the  sub- 
ject of  thought. 

These  propositions  are  true  whether  the  feeling  is  an 
emotion,  a sentiment  or  an  enthusiasm.* 

* This  assumed  -'broad  psychological  principle  " has  been  more  copiously 
discussed  by  Principal  J.  M.  B.  Sill  of  the  Michigan  Normal  School,  and  he 
has  clearly  exposed  itsuntenability.  His  conclusion  is  expressed  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  following:  “We  know  that  the  roots  of  all  directed  thinking, 


9 


130 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Now,  since  it  is  also  a true  principle  that  juvenile  study 
needs  most  the  stimulus  of  congenial  feeling,  it  follows 
that  the  pleasing  pursuit  of  observational  geology  meets 
the  obvious  requirements  of  juvenile  education. 

Other  reasons  exist  for  the  early  pursuit  of  observa- 
tional geology.  It  deals  with  common  and  familiar  things, 
and  these  better  deserve  attention  and  study  than  things 
remote  and  unfamiliar.  The  common  facts  about  us  sug- 
gest incomparably  more  answers  than  things  uncommon 
and  seldom  seen.  The  every  day  inquiries  raised  by  intel- 
ligence— especially  in  the  child — are  most  prompted  by 
things  most  seen.  Around  these  the  great  body  of  the 
child's  mental  activities  cluster.  The  greater  part  of  the 
familiar  things  in  the  data  of  the  child’s  life  are  data  of 
geology.  The, pebble  serves  him  for  attack  on  a dog.  The 
thin  stone  1iq  “skips”  on  the  surface  of  the  pond.  On 
a “slate”  he  works  his  weary  “sums”  in  arithmetic — 
writing  his  figures  with  a different  slate,  or  spreading  them 
with  chalk  crayon  on  the  blackboard.  He  finds  the  potter 
and  the  brickmaker  moulding  the  clay,  and  at  the  top  of 
the  clay-bed  finds  marl.  He  notes  the  iron-stain  along  the 
bottom  of  the  hillside  rill,  and  stumbles  over  the  iron-ore 
in  the  bog.  The  tearing  action  of  the  recent  storm  arrests 
his  notice  by  the  roadside,  and  the  broadened  distribu- 
tion of  the  material  at  the  lower  levels  illustrates  the 
nature  of  all  sedimentation.  The  points  of  contact  be- 
tween the  boy  and  the  data  of  geology  are  innumerable, 

of  all  choosing  and  willing,  flourish  only  in  the  soil  of  feeling.”  * * * 
“ Without  certain  limitations,  [the  assumed  law]  does  not  conform  to  the 
facts,  and  is  moreover,  a dangerous  warrant  for  excluding  feeUng,  that  is  to 
say,  interest  and  animation,  from  the  processes  of  instruction.  Limited  so 
as  to  make  it  true  to  the  facts,  it  is  only  the  fragment  of  the  truth,  and  of  no 
pedagogical  value.” — Sill,  in  Report , Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  for 
Michigan , 1887. 


GEOLOGY  IX  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


131 


and  stretch  along  the  entire  history  of  his  school  life. 
Why  should  he  not  early  learn  as  much  as  he  easily  can 
about  the  nature  of  these  objects  and  the  purport  of  these 
actions  ? 

It  is  a great  advantage  possessed  by  these  studies,  that 
they  can  be  pursued  out  of  doors,  and  without  books. 
Bookish  studies  are  not  only  a persecution  of  Nature,  but 
require  generally,  an  in-door  life  so  repugnant  to  the 
boy’s  instincts.  With  geology  as  recognized  study,  he 
pursues  it  while  he  goes  fishing  or  hunts  his  chestnuts. 
He  cannot  conceal  himself  from  the  presence  of  the 
stimuli  to  his  study,  and  feels  no  disposition  to  do  so,  since 
every  observation  made,  or  truth  learned,  is  the  answer  to 
one  of  the  questions  which  his  curiosity  had  raised. 

Interested  in  these  things  which  have  commanded  his 
attention,  and  yielded  him  answers  to  the  spontaneous 
questionings  of  his  intelligence,  he  makes  no  appoint- 
ments to  meet  with  boys  of  evil  influence,  and  remains 
inexperienced  in  the  low  pleasures  of  ribald  conversation 
in  the  street  or  the  saloon. 

By  these  studies  too,  he  preserves  that  symmetry  of 
mind  and  that  equable  susceptibility  to  appeals  of  truth 
from  all  directions,  which  tend  toward  balance  of  charac- 
ter and  happiness  in  life.  The  influence  of  the  prevailing 
education  is  to  bring  atrophy  to  the  powers  of  scientific 
observation,  and  to  encourage  pride  in  the  confession  of 
total  ignorance  about  certain  matters  with  which  we  daily 
collide  ; and  which  thus  exert  a happy  influence  on  our 
daily  life,  if  we  can  understand  and  control  them  ; but 
which  checker  it  with  ignorant  blanks  and  stupid  imbe- 
cilities if  we  learn  to  look  upon  them  from  no  higher 
stand-point  than  the  ox  or  the  ass.  The  glibness  and 


132 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  t 


lack  of  shame  with  which  people  confess  such  ignorance 
of  the  common  things  which  environ  them,  is  in  itself  a 
lamentable  state  of  helplessness,  and  a daily  impeachment 
of  the  educational  system  which  permits  it.  Before  the 
hebetude  of  the  percipient  faculties  has  been  accomplished 
by  school-room  tasks ; before  his  predispositions  have 
been  determined  in  directions  which  exclude  observa- 
tional study,  the  boy  (or  girl)  should  receive  such  sense- 
training as  will  start  all  his  faculties  on  the  way  to  equal 
culture  and  equal  usefulness.  It  is  a monstrous  doctrine 
that  early  years  must  be  consumed  in  committing  the  par- 
adigms of  etymology,  while  other  subjects  exactly  suited 
to  the  predispositions  of  childhood  must  be  postponed  to 
maturer  years.  It  is  a shocking  error  of  some  of  our 
pedagogic  veterans,  that  geology  is  difficult,  and  must 
come  after  the  mental  powers  are  mature  ; that  geology 
is  dry,  and  must  be  imposed  on  the  student  when  his  good 
judgment  and  strong  will  may  whip  his  faculties  into 
assent ; that  geology  has  low  culture  value,  and  therefore 
need  not  he  introduced,  unless  some  cramped  and  obscure 
little  corner  can  he  found,  in  which  the  curriculum  is 
not  yet  filled.  When,  in  later  school-life,  the  pupil  is 
asked  to  take  up  geology,  he  is  likely  to  have  acquired 
prejudices  which  avert  his  choice  : or  he  has  predisposi- 
tions acquired  which  carry  him  with  resistless  momentum 
along  the  grooves  in  which  his  early  tutelage  placed  him. 
While  this  is  the  very  result  which  the  advocates  of  the 
current  system  desire,  I cannot  regard  it  otherwise  than 
with  regret  and  disapprobation. 

Another  reason  of  grave  importance  for  the  early  intro- 
duction of  the  elements  of  geology  is  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  school-life  of  most  children  is  so  brief  that  unless 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


133 


taken  early,  the  pupil  acquires  no  information  on  the  sub- 
ject. What  a total  lack  of  information  means,  and  costs 
the  person,  I have  heretofore  attempted  to  render  evident. 
I have  also  enforced  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  introduce 
geology  in  sub-collegiate  courses,  for  the  reason  that  most 
students  do  not  enter  college  and  must  obtain  geological 
education  in  the  lower  school  or  not  at  all.  I press 
the  thought  still  farther  by  recalling  the  fact  that  most 
pupils  do  not  complete  even  a secondary  education,  and 
must  therefore  obtain  geological  training  early  in  the  sec- 
ondary course — often  in  the  primary  school — or  conclude 
their  schooling  in  total  ignorance  of  the  subject.  The 
inference  from  these  facts  is  that  the  primary  school  should 
supply  a course  of  trainiDg  in  the  simplest  facts  of  geol- 
ogy ; the  grammar  school  should  supply  a more  extended 
course,  suited  to  the  intelligence  of  pupils  of  that  grade  ; 
and  the  high  school  should  supply  a course  embodying 
such  elements  of  the  science  as  would  obviate  the  necessity 
of  beginning  with  the  elements  again  with  such  graduates 
of  the  high  school  as  enter  college.  Thus,  when  the 
subject  is  resumed  in  college,  the  student  would  be  some- 
what advanced  and  would  begin  to  discern  both  the 
utility  and  the  higher  cultural  influence  of  the  study. 
And  such  graduates  from  the  high  school  as  do  not  enter 
college,  would  carry  with  them  at  least  a fair  conception 
of  the  nature  of  geology — such  as  would  enable  them  to 
continue  the  reading  of  popular  works — and  insure  them- 
selves from  the  mortification  and  losses  resulting  from 
blank  ignorance.  This  method  is  an  application  of  the 
correct  principle  that  the  education  imparted  in  every 
grade  should  be  general,  so  that  if  the  pupil  leaves  school 
early  or  late,  he  may  have  some  knowledge  of  every 


134 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


subject  important  to  know  ; but  with  a grade  of  knowledge 
symmetrical  with  that  which  he  takes  with  him  in  the 
generality  of  subjects. 

This  wise  principle  was  enunciated  by  Comenius,  “who 
thought  the  studies  should  be  so  arranged  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools,  that  in  leaving  them,  the  pupil  should  have 
a general  education  which  makes  it  unnecessary  for  him 
to  go  farther,  if  his  condition  in  life  does  not  destine  him 
to  pursue  courses  of  the  Latin  Schools/’  “We  pursue,” 
says  Comenius,  “ a general  education,  the  teaching  to  all 
men  of  all  the  subjects  of  human  concern.  * * * The 
purpose  of  the  people’s  school  shall  be  that  all  children  of 
both  sexes,  from  the  tenth  to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
year,  may  be  instructed  in  that  knowledge  which  is  useful 
during  the  whole  life.”  * Please  note  that  these  are  prin- 
ciples for  the  organization  of  the  “ common  ” school,  or 
vernacula,  as  he  styled  it. 

It  was  one  of  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  also,  as  Morf 
has  educed  the  principles  embodied  in  Pestalozzi’s  prac- 
tice, that  “in  each  branch  instruction  ought  to  begin  with 
the  simplest  elements,  and  to  progress  by  degrees  while 
following  the  development  of  the  child,  that  is  to  say, 
through  a series  of  steps  psychologically  connected  ;”  * * * 
and  “instruction  ought  to  follow  the  order  of  natural 
development,  and  not  that  of  synthetic  exposition.” 

If,  happily,  the  child  is  allowed  to  remain  in  school, 
the  subject  of  geology  should  be  taken  up  in  each  success- 
ive grade,  and  in  each,  such  a general  view  of  the  science 
should  be  imparted  as  is  consistent  with  the  general 
advance  of  the  pupil’s  education.  Each  successive  return 
to  the  subject  will,  therefore,  be  more  thoughtful,  more 

* Comenius:  Orbis  pictus,  as  quoted  by  CompayrA 


GEOLOGY  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  STUDIES. 


135 


detailed,  and  more  extended.  These  returns  to  the  study 
will  secure  proper  equilibrium  of  acquirements  ; will  con- 
firm habits  of  inductive  thinking  and,  in  the  later  courses, 
elicit  the  higher  powers  of  deduction,  and  secure  the 
higher  culture  which  belongs  to  more  advanced  thought  ; 
and,  not  the  least,  they  will  establish  that  scientific  habit 
of  mind  which  I have  described  as  capable  of  exerting  a 
very  important  ethical  influence  in  all  the  relations  of  life. 


X. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 

^PHE  cultural  value  of  geology  lias  thus  far  been 
discussed  solely  from  general  principles.  These 
undoubtedly  conduct  to  a true  and  philosophic  result;  but 
it  will  gratify  the  intelligent  reader  to  learn  what  estimates 
have  been  placed  by  others  on  the  educational  value  of  the 
inductive  sciences,  and  in  particular,  on  the  science  of 
geology.  It  is  obvious  that  as  different  studies  call  dif- 
ferent powers  into  exercise  in  different  ratio  to  each  other, 
the  educational  values  of  different  subjects  must  be  very 
diverse.  The  diversity  must  be  grounded  on,  (1)  The 
relative  rank  of  the  various  intellectual  powers:  (2)  The 
amount  of  exercise  afforded  by  different  studies  to  the 
several  powers.  If  we  take  a simple  two-fold  grouping  of 
the  powers — something  very  inadequate — into  percipient 
and  reflective,  we  may  consider,  (1)  The  influence  of  a 
study  on  the  percipient  powers;  (2)  Its  influence  on  the 
reflective  powers;  (3)  The  correlation  between  its  influ- 
ence and  the  successive  stages  of  the  child's  mental  devel- 
opment; (4)  The  ethical  influence  of  the  peculiar  habits 
of  thought  fostered  by  it. 

Such  discriminations  have  sometimes  been  made;  and 
various  writers  have  discussed  the  relative  value  and  rela- 
tive successional  position  of  studies  suited  to  discipline 
especially  the  percipient  faculties,  and  on  the  other  hand, 
of  those  especially  suited  to  discipline  the  reflective  facul- 
ties. I have  already  had  occasion  to  cite  opinions  both 


13(5 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


137 


opposing  and  favoring  the  early  introduction  of  obser- 
vational studies;  and  I have  presented  an  array  of  reasons 
supporting  their  early  introduction.  I desire  here  espe- 
cially to  cite  and  discuss  Chancellor  Payne’s  views  on  the 
educational  value  of  certain  different  subjects  of  study, 
and  of  geology  in  particular.  He  states  and  clearly  illus- 
trates the  two  kinds  of  educational  value  commonly 
recognized,  the  practical  and  disciplinary — that  part  of 
the  result  of  study  which  I have  called  useful  knowledge, 
and  that  which  I have  called  culture.  He  then  lays  down 
these  principles: 

1.  “Educational  science  must  have  first  and  chief  ref- 
erence to  the  pupil  as  a member  of  the  human  race,  and 
living  under  the  law  of  ascent  toward  the  type  of  his  kind ; 
and  a subordinate  reference  to  the  pupil  as  an  individual 
destined  to  move  in  a fixed  habitat. 

2.  “ The  type  of  education  should  be  humane  or  liberal, 
rather  than  professional  or  technical. 

3.  “The  type  of  instruction  should  be  disciplinary 
rather  than  practical. 

4.  “In  the  acquirement  of  disciplinary  knowledge,  the 
mind  must  work  under  high  tension;  a much  lower  tension 
suffices  for  the  acquisition  of  useful  knowledge.  Even  in 
this  domain,  action  and  reaction  are  equal.”  * 

In  combating  the  positions  of  Mr.  Spencer,  Chancellor 
Payne  asserts  that  practical  and  disciplinary  values  are 
not  the  same,  and  that  “they  are  usually  in  the  inverse 
ratio  to  each  other.” 

In  reference  to  practical  knowledge,  he  introduces  a 
discrimination  into  direct  and  indirect.  That  is  direct 
“ which  we  use  for  daily  guidance,  that  we  must  have  as 

* Payne:  Science  of  Education,  p.  59. 


138 


SHALL  WE  TEACII  GEOLOGY  t 


a personal  possession.”  That  is  indirect  “ which  we  need 
only  on  occasions,  and  that  we  cannot  afford  to  acquire, 
but  which  we  can  hire.”  The  practical  value  of  physio- 
logical knowledge  is  mostly  of  the  indirect  kind,  and 
should  be  left  to  professional  study.  “ Only  the  simplest 
rudiments  come  within  the  range  of  the  average  pupil’s 
opportunities.”  The  direct  value  is  therefore  small. 

Speaking  next,  of  the  disciplinary  value  of  studies,  he 
divides  them  into  specific  and  tonic — terms  derived  from 
the  actions  of  medicines  on  the  human  body.  Mathe- 
matics, exercising  almost  exclusively  the  faculty  of  deduc- 
tive reasoning,  are  a specific.  “ The  disciplinary  value  of 
local  geography  is  of  the  specific  type,  for  the  study 
chiefly  involves  the  effort  of  memory.  The  tendency  of 
botanical  study  is  to  teach  the  art  of  classifying,  and  so  it 
calls  into  play  the  power  of  observing  and  discriminating. 
The  experimental  study  of  physiology  furnishes  a training 
in  inductive  reasoning,  and  in  this  sense  is  specific.” 

“ Quite  broadly  distinguished  from  studies  of  the  specific 
type  are  studies  like  history,  geography  and  literature, 
that  affect  the  mind  as  a whole,  involving  both  thinking 
and  feeling,  calling  into  play  several  distinct  modes  of 
intellectual  activity,  and  so  producing  what  is  known  as 
culture.  * The  disciplinary  effect  of  studies  of  this  type  I 
would  call  tonic.”  The  tonic  value  he  otherwise  would 
call  “culture  value,  for,  if  I mistake  not,”  he  says,  “the 

*.The  author’s  conception  of  culture  is  modified  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
essay.  “ Culture  is  not  so  much  a state  of  potency  as  a possession ; or  rather, 
it  is  a state  of  potency  accompanied  by  the  pleasing  consciousness  of  posses- 
sion. Hence  knowledge  may  be  acquired,  [1]  For  the  practical  use  that  can 
be  made  of  it;  [2]  For  the  mental  power  generated  by  the  efforts  at  acquire- 
ment; [3]  For  the  mental  satisfaction  coming  from  the  consciousness  of  it. 
If  I mistake  not,  that  state  of  soul  we  caU  culture  implies  serenity,  poise  and 
contemplative  delight.”  The  literary  conception  of  culture  has  been  con- 
sidered in  a former  portion  of  this  discussion. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


139 


main  elements  in  culture  are  catholicity  or  comprehensive- 
ness of  mind,  and  emotion,  tempered,  refined  and  subser- 
vient to  the  intellect  and  will.  It  would  seem  that  a 
study  to  have  a high  culture  value,  must  embody  the  fol- 
lowing characteristics:  It  must  be  concerned  with  a unit 
that  is  vast  and  imposing,  capable  of  inspiring  the  feeling 
of  grandeur  or  sublimity;  and  involving  the  main  activ- 
ities of  the  whole  mind;  must  appeal  strongly  to  the 
nobler  sentiments  of  humanity;  and  must  impress  the 
mind  with  a sense  of  a comprehensive,  organic  unity.  All 
these  marks  are  found  in  geography,  literature  and  his- 
tory, as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  statements:  The 
unit  of  geographical  study  is  the  earth,  regarded  as  the 
dwelling  place  of  man;  the  unit  of  literature  is  the  aggre- 
gate of  the  best  things  thought  by  the  human  race;  the 
unit  of  historical  study  is  the  aggregate  of  the  most  nota- 
ble things  done  by  the  human  race.  In  each  case  the  unit 
is  imposing;  embodies  a very  large  human  element;  and 
in  the  end,  remains  a comprehensive,  concrete  aggregate.” 
* * * (( jn  one  respect  astronomy  is  a culture  subject 

par  excellence — the  unit  of  study  has  such  vastness  and 
complexity.  In  another  respect,  the  human  element,  it 
is  inferior  to  geography.  Geology,  as  an  independent 
study,  lias  still  less  culture  value  than  geography — it  has 
no  independent  unit  that  is  imposing;  though  when  super- 
added  to  geography,  it  raises  the  culture  value  of  the 
latter.  Chemistry  has  scarcely  any  culture  value,  as  it 
has  been  defined.  It  has  neither  of  the  three  marks 
required.  The  same  may  be  said  of  physics,  botany, 
mineralogy  and  zoology.  If  there  be  any  exception,  it  is 
in  the  case  of  botany  and  zoology,  in  which  there  is  the 
phenomenon  of  life.”  Thus  the  author  frames  a definition 


140 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


and  by  its  use  relegates  the  different  studies  to  their  places 
in  the  scale  of  education  values. 

To  illustrate  further  Chancellor  Payne’s  method,  and 
the  conclusions  to  which  it  has  guided  him,  I reproduce 
here,  one  of  his  tables,  in  which  the  education  value, 
practical  and  disciplinary,  of  several  studies  is  indicated. 


Subjects. 

Practical. 

Disciplinart. 

Direct. 

Indirect. 

Specific. 

Toxic. 

Reading,  . . 

High. 

Low. 

Low. 

Low. 

Grammar,  . . 

Medium. 

Low. 

High. 

Medium. 

History,  . . . 

Low. 

Medium . 

Low. 

High. 

Geography,  . . 

Low. 

Medium. 

Low. 

High. 

Arithmetic,  . 

Medium. 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

Physiology,  . . 

Low. 

High. 

Low. 

Low. 

Physics,  . . . 

Medium. 

High. 

Low. 

Medium. 

Botany,  . . . 

Low. 

Medium. 

Low. 

Medium. 

Literature,  . . 

Low. 

Medium. 

Low. 

High. 

In  another  table  Chancellor  Payne  has  given  an  analy- 
sis of  the  cultural  value  of  certain  studies,  showing  at 
what  he  estimates  it  for  each  of  the  faculties  exercised, 
thus: 


Subject. 

Memory. 

Observa- 

tion. 

Reason. 

Imagina- 

tion. 

Feeling. 

Compre- 

hension. 

Arithmetic. 

Botany. 

Geography. 

Medium. 

High. 

High. 

High. 

High. 

Medium. 

High. 

Medium. 

Medium. 

High. 

History. 

Literature. 

Physics. 

Physiology. 

Grammar. 

High. 

Low. 

Medium. 

Medium. 

Medium. 

Medium. 

High. 

Medium. 

Medium. 

High. 

Medium. 

High. 

High. 

High. 

Medium. 

Low. 

In  this  table  a blank  does  not  imply  that  no  effect  is 
produced  by  the  study.  By  comprehension  he  means 
“ the  mental  grasping  of  a definite  whole.  A study  that 
serves  this  purpose  must  be  concerned  with  a unit  that  is 
large  and  imposing.” 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


141 


I have  given  a somewhat  extended  exposition  of  Chan- 
cellor Payne’s  views,  because  they  constitute  the  ablest 
and  most  discerning  attempt  known  to  me  to  reach  the 
core  of  the  question  of  education  values.  It  may  appear 
presumptuous  for  a writer  little  known  in  the  field  of  ped- 
agogy to  offer  any  serious  criticisms.  The  first  impulse 
of  diffidence  and  personal  friendship  is  to  refrain  from 
criticism;  but  second  thought  assures  me  that  Chancellor 
Payne  would  desire  another  to  express  his  convictions 
with  the  same  freedom  as  he  has  himself  exercised;  and 
if  this  is  done  with  the  candor  and  good  spirit  which  he 
has  employed,  I think  some  progress  may  be  made  toward 
a clear  and  adequate  conception  of  the  subject. 

A divergence  between  us  begins  in  the  statement  of 
general  principles.  His  second  principle  is  not  suffi- 
ciently defined.  I assume  the  reference  to  be  to  child- 
hood education,  and  with  that  understanding  I consider 
the  principle  sound,  unless  the  author,  by  “ professional 
education,”  contemplates  much  more  than  I understand 
by  it.  As  subsequently,  he  sets  down  geology  as  having 
a low  culture  value,  and,  in  respect  to  practical  value, 
affords  knowledge  which  it  is  better  to  “ hire  ” than  to 
possess,  I infer  that  geology  is  viewed  as  a “professional  ” 
study,  to  be  excluded  from  general  education.  From  this 
position  I dissent ; and  I hope  good  grounds  for  this  have 
been  shown. 

In  his  third  principle  we  discern  an  outcrop  of  the 
Jesuitical  doctrine  which,  from  time  to  time,  has  offended 
the  better  judgment  of  educators  during  three  centuries, 
but  which  Chancellor  Payne  arises  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  nineteenth  century  to  reassert  and  rehabilitate.  For 
reasons  which  I have  given,  childhood  education  should 


U2 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  i 


be  both  disciplinary  and  practical*  If  there  are  any  stu- 
dies which  afford  both  culture  aud  useful  knowledge,  they 
should  in  preference  be  pursued.  The  antithesis  of  prac- 
tical and  cultural  learning  is  a fiction.  The  discipline 
received  by  the  engineer  in  the  acquirement  of  his  pro- 
fession does  not  disappear  on  the  discovery  that  his 
knowledge  is  useful. 

The  distinction  which  the  author  makes  between  direct 
and  indirect  practical  knowledge  is  intelligible,  but  impos- 
sible of  application.  Physiological  knowledge,  he  affirms, 
has  little  direct,  but  great  indirect  value.  That  is,  for 
the  profession  of  medicine,  it  is  constantly  and  widely 
useful,  but  for  the  average  citizen  it  possesses  but  little 
use.  Now  that  depends  on  the  status  and  intelligence  of 
the  citizen.  Many  citizens  desire  to  possess  for  their  own 
use  quite  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  physio- 
logical action,  and  of  the  hygiene  which  is  based  upon 
them.  Several  state  legislatures  have  made  the  teach- 
ing of  physiology  compulsory  in  the  primary  schools. 
This  is  pretty  strong  evidence  that  the  civil  authorities 

* This  true  philosophy  is  reaching  the  convictions  of  students  who  think 
for  themselves  and  refuse  to  follow  the  leading  strings  of  tradition.  In  a 
recent  number  of  “ The  Chronicle”  published  by  the  students  of  the 
University  of  Michigan,  I find  very  explicit  utterances  from  which  I extract 
the  following  passages  : “ A great  deal  of  nonsense  has  been  and  is  being 
constantly  written  about  the  value  of  the  classics  as  a ‘ means  of  training  the 
intellect.’  If  the  training  of  the  intellect  is  the  end  and  aim  of  a classical 
education,  the  sooner  classical  education  is  cast  aside  as  a worn-out  and 
useless  garment,  the  better  it  will  be  for  everybody  concerned.  If  the  chief 
recommendation  that  a study  can  claim  is  that  it  is  adapted  to  be  used  as  an 
instrument  for  mental  gymnastics,  that  study  had  better  be  consigned  as 
quickly  as  possible  to  the  limbo  of  forgotten  things.”  * * * “ My  college 
education,  so  far  as  the  classics  have  been  concerned — and  the  classics  have 
constituted  a large  part  of  it— has  been  a complete,  an  ignominous,  a 
disgraceful  failure.”  Whether  such  failure  is  due  to  defective  instruction 
in  one  of  the  most  famous  universities  of  the  country,  or  to  inadequate 
adaptations  inherent  in  the  nature  of  the  subject,  will  with  many,  remain 
a question. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


143 


do  not  regard  such  knowledge  strictly  professional.  Sim- 
ilar statements  may  be  made  of  a knowledge  of  land 
mensuration;  a knowledge  of  injurious  insects  and  their 
habits;  a knowledge  of  common  minerals,  useful  and  use- 
less. How  much  of  knowledge  capable  of  professional 
use  shall  be  put  before  the  common  learner  is  a question 
which  ought  to  be  generously  answered;  for,  plainly,  the 
better  the  citizen  is  prepared  to  estimate  the  competency 
of  the  professional  man  who  takes  his  money,  the  less  the 
incompetent  will  flourish.  Quackery  in  the  professional 
luxuriates  by  the  side  of  ignorance  in  the  client.  If  the 
distinction  here  noted  is  observed,  it  might  be  designated 
general  and  professional  practical  knowledge.  Of  the 
distinction  of  disciplinary  studies  into  specific  and  tonic, 
I have  to  say  that  it  does  not  seem  to  exist  as  a fact. 
What  is  the  “tonic”  or  constitutional  influence  exerted 
by  “ studies  like  history,  geography  and  literature” — Mr. 
Payne's  trivium  of  culture  studies  ? He  says  they  “ affect 
the  mind  as  a whole,  involving  both  thinking  and  feeling, 
calling  into  play  several  distinct  modes  of  intellectual 
activity,  and  so  producing  what  is  known  as  culture.” 
Take  first  history:  if  it  brings  into  activity  “the  mind  as 
a whole,”  that  must  be  the  same  thing  as  “involving 
both  thinking  and  feeling,”  and  “calling  into  play  dis- 
tinct modes  of  intellectual  activity.”  Now,  what  are 
those  modes  ? Is  it  not  notorious  that  pursued  in  the 
grammar  school,  and  even  in  the  high  school,  the  verbal 
memory  is  the  principal  power  exercised  P That  is  the 
complaint  of  pupils.  So  far  then,  the  influence  is  specific 
and  not  tonic;  and  it  holds  the  same  place  as  mathematics, 
which  trains  chiefly  the  deductive  reason.  Should  it  be 
replied  that  history  is  often  pursued  in  college  in  such  a 


144 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


way  as  to  elicit  into  play  a much  wider  range  of  powers, 
that  may  be  granted;  but  this  does  not  prove  history  an 
efficient  culture  study  for  the  lower  schools;  and  my  argu- 
ments here  concern  chiefly  the  lower  schools. 

Take  geography,  another  one  of  Mr.  Payne’s  culture 
trivium — a study  which,  as  generally  taught  has  gained 
little  repute  for  breadth  of  discipline — what  are  its  precise 
claims  culturally  ? Mr.  Payne  states  that  “ local  geogra- 
phy” exerts  chiefly  an  influence  “of  the  specific  type, 
for  the  study  chiefly  involves  the  effort  of  memory.” 
How  then  does  it  become  a “tonic”  study  in  Mr.  Payne’s 
table,  where  it  is  set  down  as  having  a high  “tonic” 
value  ? Does  Mr.  Payne  here  contradict  himself  ? Or 
does  he  use  the  term  geography  in  a different  sense  from 
“local  geography?”  Or  does  he  even  join  geolog}-  to 
geography — since  he  says  afterward,  “when  superadded 
to  geography,  it  raises  the  culture  value  of  the  latter  ” — 
though  he  does  not  say  “tonic”  culture.  Mow,  in  our 
inability  to  arrive  at  the  author’s  meaning,  let  us  consider 
the  subject  on  its  merits.  By  geography  we  generally 
understand  “civil  geography.”  Books  on  this  subject 
generally  begin  with  preliminaries  of  an  astronomical  and 
geometrical  kind.  When  we  have  passed  equinoxes,  sol- 
stices, tropics,  parallels,  meridians  and  zones,  we  enter 
upon  a desert  of  “local  geography” — made  up  of  names 
of  continents,  islands,  capes,  rivers,  countries,  cities, 
populations,  productions,  exports  and  other  matter  for 
stocking  a catalogue.  The  study  of  school  geography 
consists  chiefly  in  committing  to  memory  this  catalogue. 
This  throws  a burdensome  effort  on  the  verbal  memory. 
The  study  is  therefore  chiefly  specific,  as  Mr.  Payne  first 
describes  it.  But  so  far  as  maps  are  used,  an  opportunity 


EDUCATION'  VALUES. 


145 


exists  for  bringing  imagination  into  activity.  This  result 
is  obtained  chiefly  by  drawing  maps  from  memory,  and 
not  by  sets  of  rules.  I conceive  that  something  may  also 
be  learned  of  the  population  of  nationalities  and  districts. 
Though  this  is  ethnography,  we  may  credit  it  to  geogra- 
phy, and  still  find  little  beyond  an  exercise  of  memory. 
How  then  does  geography  become  a “culture  study”  of 
“high  tonic”  value  ? How  does  it  find  place  in  the  hon- 
ored “culture  trivium  ?”  Apparently  it  does  not  belong 
there.  Obviously,  several  other  studies  could  be  named 
which  exercise  more  than  the  memory — more  than  memory 
and  imagination.  With  all  humility,  I think  geology 
can  do  it. 

But  perhaps  by  geography  Chancellor  Payne  under- 
stands “civil  geography”  plus  “physical  geography.” 
The  latter  I confess,  possesses  many  excellences  for  cul- 
ture which  the  former  lacks.  But  it  is  made  up  of  a 
large  constituent  of  physiographic  geology,  large  constit- 
uents of  botany  and  zoology,  and  a considerable  constit- 
uent of  ethnography.  It  is  a happy  combination,  and 
finds  an  appreciative  reception  in  the  school.  But  the 
whole  study  is  a study  of  facts,  and  levies  exactions 
chiefly  on  the  verbal  memory — since  such  treatises  do  not 
go  far  enough  to  disclose  the  great  doctrines  which  may 
be  generalized  from  the  facts.  Why  should  this  study  be 
regarded  as  highly  capable  of  “tonic”  culture  ? 

Take  literature,  * the  third  member  of  Mr.  Payne’s 

*1  find  the  term  literature  employed  in  the  three  following  senses: — 
1.  The  broader  sense.  All  thoughts,  perceptions  and  sentiments  reduced  to 
expression  by  letters  is  literature,  etymologically  speaking.  Every  branch  of 
science  has  its  literature.  Whatever  has  been  written  upon  it,  belongs 
broadly  to  this  category.  2.  The  humanistic  sense.  This  excludes  writings 
which  are  the  products  of  exact  or  abstract  thought.  It  excludes  mathemat- 
ics and  its  applications.  It  excludes  treatises  on  science  in  which  the  leading 
10 


146 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


“culture  trivium” — what  is  it  ? He  says,  “The  unit  of 
literature  is  the  aggregate  of  the  best  things  thought  by 
the  human  race.”  Evidently,  the  author  does  not  include 
the  geometry  of  Euclid,  nor  the  “ Principia  ” of  Newton, 
nor  the  “ Mecanique  celeste  ” of  Laplace,  nor  any  of  the 
other  “ best  things  thought  ” within  the  realm  of  physi- 
cal and  natural  science.  It  does  not  even  include  the 
masterpieces  of  composition  on  themes  within  those  realms. 
If  I may  judge  from  the  outgivings  of  the  literary  guild, 
it  does  not  include  the  “ Old  Red  Sandstone”  of  Hugh 
Miller,  nor  the  eloquent  “eloges”  pronounced  over  the 
the  decedents  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences.  It 
excludes  therefore,  all  compositions  fruitful  and  rich  in 
scientific  thought.  The  whole  range  of  scientific  con- 
ceptions lies  outside  of  “ literature,”  and  their  disciplin- 
ary influence  cannot  be  claimed  for  literature.  They  are 
not  claimed.  Literature  ignores  them. 

Literature  does  not  claim  the  best  thoughts  of  phil- 
osophy and  theology.  Kant’s  “ Kritik  der  reinen  Yer- 
nunft  ” has  no  more  place  here  than  Leibnitz’s  “ Theo- 
dice,”  or  Aquinas’  “ Summa  Theologite.”  None  of  these 
themes  would  be  pursued  in  college  as  literature.  Gro- 
tius’  “ Law  of  Nations  ” and  Kent’s  “ Commentaries  ” 
are  equally  beyond  the  pale  of  literature. 

object  is  to  impart  information.  It  excludes  grammatical,  logical  and 
metaphysical  works.  It  includes,  however,  all  treatises  on  these  themes 
-which,  with  instruction,  unite  appeals  to  imagination,  sentiment  or  emotion, 
and  thus  aim  to  please  as  well  as  to  instruct.  In  this  sense,  certain  writings 
on  astronomy,  geology,  or  organic  life  are  admissible  to  recognition  as 
literature.  Many  historical  treatises  would  be  admitted  here.  3.  The  nar- 
rower sense.  This  embraces  belles  lettres  or  polite  literature.  Its  aim  is  to 
move  chiefly  the  emotions,  sentiments  and  imagination.  It  seeks  to  please. 
Thought  is  secondary.  Instruction  is  widely  alien  to  its  purpose.  Still,  the 
most  enduring  specimens  of  polite  literature  are  those  in  which  moral  and 
religious  lessons  are  taught  by  implication.  The  narrower  sense  is  that 
employed  by  Chancellor  Payne. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


147 


Literature  in  the  present  connection  does  not  embrace 
historical  writings,  for  they  are  bracketed  with  literature 
in  the  culture  trivium.  With  all  these  exclusions  liter- 
ature is  pronounced  by  Chancellor  Payne  to  be  “the 
aggregate  of  the  best  things  thought  by  the  human 
race.” 

What  remains  of  the  recorded  thought  of  the  world  is 
made  up  chiefly  of  poetry,  romances,  tales.  All  poetry, 
good  and  bad,  has  entrance  here.  I suppose  poems  like  the 
elder  Darwin's  “Botanic  Garden”  would  be  excepted. 
Poetry  is  addressed  to  feeling  and  imagination.  Good 
poetry  is  the  work  of  rare  genius,  and  the  masterpieces  of 
poetry  are  worthy  almost  of  veneration.  Prose  works  of 
fiction  belong  here.  They  are  addressed  to  the  same 
departments  of  our  nature.  Many  works  of  this  class 
are  also  masterpieces  of  genius  to  be  enjoyed  by  all,  and 
analyzed  by  the  scholar.  The  feelings  concerned  are 
mostly  of  the  social  class,  but  sometimes  ethical  or  relig- 
ious. They  bring  us  nearer  to  humanity  and  to  God. 
But  this  is  an  ethical,  not  an  intellectual  culture.  A 
lower  grade  of  fiction  claiming  the  literary  christening, 
floods  the  book-stalls,  drives  out  good  reading,  makes  but 
feeble  appeals  to  intelligence  or  even  imagination,  but 
strives  chiefly  to  awaken  feeling — even  ignoble,  groveling 
or  sensual  feelings.  Through  feeling  they  appeal  to  favor, 
and  gain  some  popularity  if  not  standing.  Many  of  them 
are  scarcely  to  be  classed  among  the  products  of  mind. 
Such  is  literature  in  its  psychological  relations.  As  means 
of  culture,  it  exercises  the  imagination,  the  social  feel- 
ings, and  to  a smaller  extent  taste,  verbal  memory  and  the 
ethical  sentiments. 


148 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Behold  then,  the  “culture  trivium.” 

Geography,  training  chiefly  the  verbal  memory. 

History,  training  chiefly  the  verbal  memory. 

Literature,  training  chiefly  the  imagination,  feeling 
and  taste. 

The  types  of  culture  studies  provide  for  little  or  no 
training  of  Observation,  Comparison,  Classification.  In- 
duction, Thought-memory,  Deduction.  They  inspire  no 
scientific  spirit,  create  no  scientific  habit  of  thought,  and 
give  us  no  enlarged  and  ennobling  views  of  God’s  world. 
Geology,  which  does  all  this,  must  be  believed  to  possess 
only  a low  culture  value,  and  ought  not  to  find  place  in  the 
curriculum.  Can  such  philosophy  find  credence  among 
intelligent  teachers  ? 

I wish  again  to  remark  that  my  present  investigation 
concerns  studies  as  usually  taught,  and  in  schools  of  the 
lower  order.  In  college,  history  and  literature  are  often 
pursued  in  a nobler  and  more  cultural  way;  and  physical 
geography,  [if  that  is  what  Chancellor  Payne  means]  is 
studied  as  a part  of  geology,  and  yields  its  appropriate 
cultural  influence.  It  is  to  be  presumed  that  Chancellor 
Payne  conceived  these  studies  under  their  most  favorable 
conditions  for  producing  culture. 

In  these  examinations  it  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the 
favored  studies  exert  either  a constitutional  influence  on 
the  soul,  or  an  influence  “ involving  the  main  activities  of 
the  whole  mind.”  So  that  I do  not  discover  ground  for 
a distinction  of  cultural  influence  into  “specific”  and 
“tonic.”  All  cultural  influence  when  analyzed,  is  spe- 
cific, but  some  is  of  a wider  range. 

I desire  to  carry  the  examination  somewhat  farther. 
According  to  Chancellor  Payne’s  definition  of  study 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


149 


having  high  cultural  value,  it  must  embody  the  following 
characteristics: 

1.  “It  must  be  concerned  with  a unit  that  is  vast  and 
imposing,  capable  of  inspiring  the  feeling  of  grandeur  or 
sublimity,  and  involving  the  main  activities  of  the  whole 
mind. 

2.  “ It  must  appeal  strongly  to  the  nobler  instincts  of 
humanity. 

3.  “ It  must  impress  the  mind  with  the  sense  of  a com- 
prehensive organic  unity.” 

These  marks,  he  thinks,  are  found  in  geography,  litera- 
ture and  history.  The  “ unit  ” of  geographical  study  is 
the  earth,  regarded  as  the  dwelling-place  of  man.  But 
geology,  he  says,  possesses  low  cultural  value,  because  it 
has  a unit  less  “vast  and  imposing,”  and  less  “ capable  of 
inspiring  the  feeling  of  grandeur  or  sublimity.”  Is  such 
reasoning  intelligible?  The  unit  of  geography  “involves 
the  main  activities  of  the  mind.”  We  have  scarcely 
found  this  claim  founded  on  fact.  It  is  a narrow  study; 
it  exercises  chiefly  the  verbal  memory.  To  geology  Chan- 
cellor Payne  denies  the  power  to  elicit  into  activity  the 
leading  faculties  of  the  mind.  We  have  found  it  more 
capable  of  doing  this  than  any  other  study.  Is  this  the 
reasoning  by  which  the  interests  of  the  prevailing  forms 
of  education  are  to  be  promoted  ? 

“If  geography  also  bears  the  second  mark  of  high  cul- 
tural value,  it  appeals  strongly  to  the  nobler  instincts  of 
humanity.  ” Every  boy  of  twelve  years  understands  how 
strongly  geography  appeals  to  his  nobler  instincts.  Every 
teacher  understands  how  frequently  Chancellor  Payne’s 
“painful  stimulus”  needs  to  be  brought  into  use.  But 
geology.  Chancellor  Payne  says,  has  low  cultural  value, 


150 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


because  it  does  not  appeal  to  the  nobler  instincts  of 
humanity.  Is  such  reasoning  intelligible  ? I beg  the 
reader  to  find  answer  in  what  I have  said  on  “Geology 
and  Culture.” 

If  geography  also  bears  the  third  mark,  “ It  impresses 
the  mind  with  the  sense  of  a comprehensive  organic  unity.” 
The  conception  of  the  world  as  divided  up  among  a 
thousand  nations  and  tribes — more  or  less — is  not  the  con- 
cept of  an  organic  unity — neither  of  a unity  nor  an  organ- 
ism. But  geology.  Chancellor  Payne  says,  possesses  only 
low  cultural  value,  because  it  does  not  impress  the  mind 
with  the  sense  of  a comprehensive  organic  unity.  It  does 
not  deal  with  the  totality  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  and 
does  not  present  that  globe  as  consisting  of  mutually 
related  parts,  coexisting  under  an  intelligible  system 
of  law — neither  unity  nor  organization.  Is  such  reason- 
ing intelligible  ? 

Again,  he  says  that  literature  bears  the  mark  of  a highly 
cultural  study.  “The  unity  of  literature  is  the  aggregate 
of  the  best  things  thought  by  the  human  race.”  But 
this,  as  I have  shown,  is  not  understood  to  embrace  the 
best  thoughts  recorded  in  physical  science,  in  natural  sci- 
ence, in  philosophy,  in  theology,  in  jurisprudence  or  in 
history.  Is  this  a philosopher’s  conception  of  the  best 
thoughts  of  mankind  P Is  this  his  conception  of  an  aggre- 
gate conveying  the  “ concept  of  unity  ?”  Is  this  an  intel- 
ligible unity,  either  concrete,  ideal,  or  constructive  ? 
About  the  same  as  that  possessed  by  the  literature  of  a 
hotel  “ register.”  Further,  he  says  this  unity  of  literature 
is  “imposing,  capable  of  inspiring  the  feeling  of  grandeur 
or  sublimity.”  What  an  imposing  “aggregate  of  all  the 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


151 


best  thoughts  of  the  race”  remains  after  all  the  truly 
best  thoughts  are  hewn  away  ! 

Literature,  he  thinks,  bears  the  second  “mark”  by 
appealing  strongly  to  the  nobler  instincts  of  humanity. 
In  this  view  I am  happy  to  agree — if,  by  common  consent, 
we  can  disown  those  floods  of  fiction  and  tales  of  society 
which  appeal  chiefly  to  the  animal  sentiments,  and  sap 
intelligence  of  all  virility. 

Literature,  he  thinks,  bears  the  third  “ mark”  by 
“ impressing  the  mind  with  the  sense  of  a comprehensive 
organic  unity.”  Its  comprehensiveness  comprehends  a 
certain  remainder  of  “best  thoughts,”  after  most  of  the 
really  best  thoughts  of  the  race  have  been  banished  to  the 
outer  realm.  It  is  comprehensive,  however,  in  the  sense 
of  including  all  vapid  fiction  and  limping  metre,  from  the 
country  newspaper  story  to  the  bit  of  doggerel  hidden 
in  the  corner  of  the  little -read  weekly.  Its  unity  is 
expressed  in  the  endless  diversity  of  themes  treated,  of 
tales  recited,  of  styles  employed,  of  languages  which 
enshrine  it.  In  matter  and  method  the  unity  of  litera- 
ture is  that  of  a common-place  book.  One  fibre  of  genuine 
unity  runs  through  it — high  and  low,  good  and  bad  alike — 
its  basal  motive  is  human  sentiment  and  human  passion. 

Again  he  says  that  history  bears  the  marks  of  a highly 
cultural  study.  “ Its  unit  is  the  aggregate  of  the  most 
notable  things  done  by  the  human  race.”  This  unity  is 
“vast  and  imposing,  capable  of  inspiring  the  feeling  of 
grandeur  or  sublimity,  and  involving  the  main  activities 
of  the  whole  mind.”  On  the  contrary,  the  unity  of  his- 
tory is  difficult  to  conceive.  Its  matter  and  form  are 
as  diverse  as  nations,  tribes,  customs,  enterprises,  and 
languages.  There  is  no  obvious  inclusion  of  the  most 


152 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


notable  things  tinder  one  concept,  with  exclusion  of  less 
notable  things.  The  human  movements  which  history 
records  tend  in  directions  as  various  as  those  of  the 
insects  in  a jungle.  The  only  unifying  principle  is  the 
humanity  which  inspires  every  movement.  In  the  con- 
sentaneous movements  of  nations  under  one  leader  and 
one  impulse,  the  unity  is  manifest,  and  the  unity  is  truly 
“ imposing,”  and  possesses  a moral  “ grandeur.”  In  the 
due  contemplation  and  interpretation  of  national  or  racial 
movements,  we  have  a spectacle  which  widens  the  intelli- 
gence and  impresses  the  ethical  sense.  But  this  belongs 
to  the  grade  of  collegiate  study.  When  further  we  con- 
sider the  application  of  the  first  criterion  of  a highly  cul- 
tural study,  we  do  not  find  that  history  involves  the  main 
activities  of  the  whole  mind.  It  occupies  verbal  memory, 
comparison,  analysis,  imagination,  and,  in  advanced 
study,  generalization  to  a limited  extent,  analysis  of 
motives,  elimination  of  the  forces  which  move  bodies  of 
men,  and  furnishes  occasions  for  inquiries  in  physical 
geography  and  its  connection  with  history,  ethnography, 
geology,  systems  of  religion,  basal  religion,  morality, 
laws,  customs,  languages,  civil  society  and  other  things. 
But  these  ranges  of  historical  study  are  never  reached  in 
schools  below  collegiate  grade. 

History  he  says  also,  “appeals  strongly  to  the  nobler 
instincts  of  humanity.”  The  little  Miss  memorizing  par- 
agraphs from  “Green’s  History  of  the  English  People” 
can  respond  to  this  claim,  so  far  as  the  lower  schools  are 
concerned.  In  its  appeal  to  the  “ instincts  ” of  pupils  of 
maturer  years,  it  moves  chiefly  the  warlike  sentiments: 
for  history  is  chiefly  a narrative  of  military  movements: 
in  which  indeed,  conspicuous  leaders  inspire  a personal 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


153 


interest  analogous  to  that  excited  by  the  heroes  in  tales  of 
fiction.  That  the  central  principle  in  national  life  is  the 
army,  is  taught  by  the  lesson  of  pervading  military  uni- 
forms; a national  head  on  daily  inspection  of  his  favorite 
corps;  a state  executive  traveling  about  in  time  of  pro- 
found peace,  accompanied  by  his  “staff,”  and  the  forms 
pertaining  to  the  organization  of  department  headquar- 
ters; the  astounding  pension-roll;  the  annual  “encamp- 
ment,” and  a thousand  other  evidences  that  at  least  one 
national  eye  is  always  fixed  on  war.  Wars,  conquests, 
surrenders,  treaties, — these  are  the  themes  of  history. 
Can  such  history  “ appeal  strongly  to  the  nobler  instincts 
of  humanity  ?” 

History,  Chancellor  Payne  affirms,  in  applying  his 
third  criterion  of  a highly  cultural  study,  “ impresses  the 
mind  with  the  sense  of  a comprehensive  organic  unity.” 
On  the  unity  of  history  I have  remarked.  Its  compre- 
hensiveness is  a fugitive  concept.  Its  “ organic  ” char- 
acteristics are  a name — vox  et  pr cetera  nihil. 

Adopting  then,  Chancellor  Payne’s  three  criteria  of  a 
highly  cultural  study,  and  applying  them  to  Chancellor 
Payne’s  selected  type-studies,  we  find  that  those  studies 
shrink  away  from  the  test,  while  geology,  kicked  into  the 
limbo  of  neglect,  rises  with  a prompt  and  intelligible 
response,  and  establishes  its  claim  to  a first  place  in  the 
“trivium  of  culture.” 

An  examination  of  Dr.  Payne’s  table  of  educational 
values  would  provoke  considerable  dissent,  but  as  he  has 
not  honored  geology  by  mention  among  studies  having 
noticeable  culture  value,  I proceed  to  an  exhibit  of  the 
education  value  of  geology  which  seems  rational  and  just. 
I present  first,  a logical  scheme  of  the  principal  divisions 


154 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


of  geological  study,  and  next  a scheme  of  the  forms  of 
education  value  afforded  by  the  study.  The  Roman 
numerals  in  the  second  scheme  correspond  to  the  same  in 
the  first  scheme. 


O 


O 


ci 

> 


Scheme  of  Education  Values  of  Geology. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


155 


The  rationale  of  the  above  schemes  has  been  presented 
in  chapters  IV  and  V.  In  the  scheme  for  education 
values  it  is  supposed  the  capacity  of  the  subject  is 
exhausted,  without  regard  to  age  of  pupil.  It  is  obvious 
that  while  for  children,  observational  geology  has  high 
cultural  value,  deductive  geology  has  very  little.  While 
for  adults,  inductive  and  deductive  geology  have  a high 
value,  observational  geology  has  a lower  value  than  for 
children.  It  is  lower  both  relatively  and  absolutely.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  draw  up  a table  in  which  an 
estimated  numerical  value  should  be  assigned  to  each  of 
the  forms  of  education-value  given  in  the  last  scheme; 
and  these  might  be  fixed  for  three  different  stages  of 
mental  development.  Such  a table  is  attempted  below. 
The  scale  is  1 to  10. 


Education  Values. 

Age. 

Age. 

Age. 

10- 

15. 

12-18. 

15-20. 

General  practical  ...... 

1' 

1 

3 

•5 

8 

-18 

12 

Professional  practical 

0 

2 

10 

12 

Observation 

10’ 

10 1 

6' 

26 

Sense-memory 

►4 

10 

10 

6 

26 

Comparison 

o 

Eh 

O 

H 

7 

7 

8 

22 

Inductive  judgment  .... 

3 

•39 

6 

-56 

10 

-68 

19 

Thought-memory 

3 

6 

10 

19 

Imagination 

4 

7 

8 

19 

Deductive  judgment 

1 

5 

10 

16 

Imagination 

1 

_ 

5 

10  J 

16 

Nobler  views 

l' 

10 

17 

Enlightened  faith 

►4 

1 

6 

10 

17 

Preoccupation 

o 

10 

^22 

8 

-30 

p 

6 

i 34 

24 

Scientific  habit  of  mind  . . . 

la 

10. 

10. 

8J 

28 

62 

91 

120 

273 

Quantitative  estimates  for  different  stages  of  mental  development. 


156 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


The  accuracy  of  such  a table  depends  of  course  on  one’s 
best  judgment.  Supposing  this  table  to  possess  approx- 
imate accuracy,  it  shows  that  for  aggregate  intellectual 
culture,  the  later  years  excel ; for  the  formation  of  habits 
of  observation,  the  earlier  years  excel.  For  aggregate 
ethical  influence,  the  maturer  study  is  most  effective ; 
but  for  the  establishment  of  the  scientific  habit,  the 
earlier  years  are  the  most  favorable.  Practical  values  are 
of  course  greatest  in  maturer  study.  The  special  reason 
for  early  study  is,  that  the  observing  powers  are  then  in 
full  exercise,  and  geology  supplies  a most  apt  employ- 
ment ; while  the  reflective  powers  have  not  yet  come  into 
exercise,  and  abstract  studies  are  egregiously  misfit.  The 
sums  in  the  last  column  show  the  relative  total  values  of 
each  kind,  when  the  study  is  pursued  through  school-life. 
The  sums  at  the  bottom  show  the  aggregate  education 
value  of  geology  at  each  of  the  three  stages  of  intellectual 
development.  This  table  is  to  be  regarded  as  tentative  ; 
and  further  suggestions  would  be  very  gladly  received. 

It  would  be  instructive  to  have  tables  similarly  con- 
structed to  set  forth  the  education  values  of  the  other 
studies  pursued  in  the  schools,  especially  the  lower 
schools,  but  I prefer  to  leave  others  to  assume  the  res- 
ponsibility of  recording  estimates.  I permit  myself, 
however,  to  form  a table  of  educational  values  of  Chan- 
cellor Payne’s  “culture  trivium.”  I do  not  present  it  as 
an  estimate  exactly  parallel  with  the  estimate  which  I 
have  made  for  geology.  The  geological  table,  as  I have 
stated,  represents  geology  at  its  best,  while  the  trivium 
table  represents  the  trivium  studies  as  ordinarily  pursued. 
Should  we  form  a table  for  geology  as  ordinarily  pursued, 
and  a table  for  the  trivium  studies  taken  at  their  best, 


Numerical  Estimates  for  different  stages  of  devolopment. 


EDUCATION  VALUES. 


157 


CULTURAL. 


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ETHICAL. 


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CULTURE  TRIVTUM  OF  PAYNE. 


158 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


the  education  values  of  the  former  would  be  much  low- 
ered, and  those  of  the  latter  much  raised — especially  in 
geography.  Still,  we  should  find  important  faculties 
left  by  the  culture  trivium  entirely  or  nearly  unaffected  ; 
and  in  general,  the  ethical  influence  would  be  compara- 
tively low.  The  ethical  influence  of  literature  is  an 
uncertain  quantity — sometimes  high  and  positive,  some- 
times zero,  and  sometimes  negative.  The  scientific  spirit 
would  be  hardly  aroused  at  all.  As  to  jn’actical  values  ; 
it  is  the  characteristic  of  the  prevailing  pedagogic  doc- 
trine, that  the  most  appropriate  studies  are  those  which 
do  not  possess  them  ; and  with  that  view,  the  trivium 
studies  are  well  selected  types. 


XI. 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


N an  earlier  part  of  this  discussion  I have  reproduced 


returns  from  numerous  schools  in  the  state  of  Michi- 
gan, showing  the  extremely  subordinate  position  of  geolog- 
ical study  in  those  schools,  with  condensed  statements  of 
the  reasons  assigned  for  the  general  absence  of  geology 
from  the  courses  pursued.  This  exposition  of  facts  has  been 
followed  by  a consideration  of  what  geology  is,  and  the 
claims  it  presents  for  ampler  recognition.  I trust  the 
reader  has  followed  the  discussion  with  just  and  generous 
sympathy  for  the  rights  of  geology.  If  so,  he  will  be  pre- 
pared to  recall  the  facts  stated  in  the  returns  from  the 
schools,  and  to  join  in  an  examination  of  the  validity  and 
reasonableness  of  the  causes  assigned  for  holding  geology 
back  from  a prominent  place  in  the  education  of  the 
State  and  of  other  states. 

I desire  first  of  all,  however,  to  acknowledge  my  obliga- 
tions to  the  numerous  teachers,  principals  and  superin- 
tendents "who  have  taken  the  pains  to  reply  to  my  circular, 
and  to  express  my  admiration  of  the  intelligent  manner 
in  which  so  many  of  them  have  treated  the  subject. 

Three  facts  are  prominently  conspicuous  in  these  re- 
turns. 1.  A general  appreciation  exists  of  the  interest 
and  value  of  geological  study,  and  a desire  for  its  intro- 
duction in  the  higher  grades.  2.  An  almost  unanimous 
conviction  that  it  ought  to  have  a place  in  the  lower 
grades.  3.  The  possession  of  the  ground  by  other  subjects 


159 


1G0 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  P 


which  the  ruling  authorities  regard  of  more  fundamental 
importance.  The  first  two  facts  are  of  an  encouraging 
character.  Without  the  assent  and  good  wishes  of  the 
teachers,  the  effort  to  improve  the  educational  status 
of  geology  would  be  extremely  arduous  if  not  hopeless. 
With  their  general  sympathy  and  approval,  little  remains 
but  to  examine  in  detail  the  practical  obstacles  to  the  end 
proposed,  and  if  possible  to  remove  them. 

The  nature  of  the  antagonistic  influence  of  the  Univer- 
sity may  be  explained  in  few  words.  In  the  academic 
department,  the  University  maintains  four  general  courses 
popularly  denominated:  1.  The  Classical  course,  lead- 

ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  [A.B.,  or  Artium 
Baccalaureus\.  2.  The  Latin-Scientific  course,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy  [Ph.B.,  or  Philo- 
sophic Baccalaureus ].  3.  The  Scientific  course,  lead- 

ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  [B.S.],  and,  4. 
The  English  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Letters  [B.L.].  The  general  course  for  the  degree  of 
A.B.  is  the  standard  course  in  the  history  of  universities, 
requiring  Latin,  Greek,  Mathematics,  French.  English 
and  Philosophy.  The  requirements  for  graduation  in  the 
several  general  courses  are  indicated  by  the  letter  G,  in 
the  following  table.* 

* Since  this  chapter  went  to  press  the  Academic  Faculty  have  decided  on 
some  changes,  to  go  into  effect  at  the  beginning  of  the  academic  year  1S90- 
91.  Botany  thus  becomes  a required  preparatory  in  all  courses;  and  in  the 
courses  for  B.S.  and  B.L. , astronomy  is  admitted  as  an  elective  preparatory, 
with  chemistry,  geology,  physiology  and  zoology.  Of  these  five,  the  student 
must  be  prepared  in  three— a slight  gain  for  the  natural  sciences. 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


161 


52 


© 


?! 

5 


s 


O* 


Examinations  are  held  at  the  University,  of  all  candi- 
dates for  admission  to  the  academic  department,  except 
such  as  have  studied  at  certain  approved  schools,  and 
n 


162 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


bring  “ diplomas  ” certifying  that  they  have  completed 
properly  the  courses  of  preparation  prescribed  by  the 
University.  Such  schools  are  under  the  quasi-supervision 
of  the  University,  and  are  inspected  often  enough  to  know 
that  the  instruction  is  satisfactorily  efficient  for  admission 
to  one  or  more  of  the  general  courses.  According  to  the 
Calendar  of  1888-9,  there  are  58  “ diploma  schools,”  of 
which  16  are  in  other  States  than  Michigan. 

The  responsibility  thus  thrown  upon  the  diploma 
schools  arouses  a sense  of  honor  and  awakens  aspirations 
to  maintain  a good  character.  The  diploma  relation  to 
the  University  is  regarded  as  a distinction,  and  the 
diploma  policy  is  believed  to  have  exerted  a good  influ- 
ence, both  upon  the  schools  and  the  University.  The 
policy,  in  principle,  has  been  widely  adopted. 

As  the  diploma  relation  is  generally  the  object  of  ambi- 
tion, many  of  the  schools  make  very  strenuous  exertions 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  University,  even  when 
their  equipment  is  insufficient  to  do  this  and  also  carry 
on  the  work  of  general  secondary  instruction  in  a thor- 
ough way.  Every  nerve  is  strained  to  do  acceptable  work 
in  the  studies  required  for  University  preparation.  On 
these  all  energies  are  bent.  Studies  not  thus  required 
are  less  efficiently  provided  for,  or  are  completely  neg- 
lected. In  cases  where  two  or  more  preparatory  studies 
are  elective,  as  shown  in  the  foregoing  table,  it  is  custom- 
ary  to  provide  for  only  one,  and  entirely  neglect  the 
others.  Thus,  in  the  general  courses  for  B.S.  and  B.L., 
chemistry,  geology,  zoology,  and  physiology  are  alternates 
— only  one  being  required.  As  state  law  requires  instruc- 
tion in  physiology,  this  is  generally  the  favored  elective. 
But  chemistry,  viewed  as  a science  having  many  relations 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


163 


to  industry  and  practical  life,  is  also  quite  commonly 
admitted  into  the  curriculum  of  study.  After  this,  geol- 
ogy and  zoology  have  little  to  expect. 

It  is  intelligible  now,  that  geology  has  within  a few 
years,  been  dropped  from  so  many  Michigan  schools.  As 
long  as  each  study  rested  on  its  own  merits,  geology  held 
a fair  and  improving  status.  But  as  soon  as  the  Univer- 
sity sent  out  its  demands  for  other  studies,  and  notified 
the  schools  that  geology  was  not  required,  human  nature 
began  to  sacrifice  its  intelligent  convictions  to  that  econ- 
omy which  everywhere  attempts  to  save  first,  by  cutting 
down  allowances  for  spiritual  needs. 

The  question  whether  it  is  wise  for  the  University  to 
omit  geolog}’  from  the  list  of  requirements,  both  for  pre- 
paration and  for  graduation,  is  one  which  I do  not  pur- 
pose to  discuss  in  this  }fiace.  The  impropriety  of  throw- 
ing it  out  of  the  schools  is  something  which  seriously 
deserves  attention.  If  we  attempt  to  educate  at  all,  it  is 
the  part  of  wisdom  to  give  the  best  education.  Unless 
the  showing  which  I have  made  is  egregiously  fallacious, 
that  is  not  the  best  education  which  omits  geology  entirely 
from  consideration.  The  school  officials  are  bound  in 
reason,  and  in  justice  to  the  people,  to  provide  for  the 
teaching  of  geology.  If  it  does  not  suit  the  University  to 
include  the  subject  among  requirements  for  entrance 
upon  any  of  its  general  courses,  the  schools  are  still  bound 
to  provide  for  adequate  instruction  in  it.  The  schools 
are  not  established  by  the  people  solely  to  fit  students  for 
the  University.  Not  over  one-tenth  of  those  in  attend- 
ance meditate  any  connection  with  the  University.  Only 
a fraction  of  those  who  complete  a grammar  school  course 
proceed  with  their  studies,  and  gain  entrance  to  the 


104 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


University.  Only  a fraction  of  those  who  complete  the 
usual  high  school  course  proceed  farther.  The  comple- 
tion of  this  course  is  a more  extensive  education  than  a 
majority  of  our  young  people  ever  acquire.  A majority 
are  limited  to  the  grammar  school  course,  or  something 
still  inferior.  They  are  turned  out  into  society  com- 
pletely ignorant  of  the  important  facts  and  principles  of 
the  history  of  the  earth  on  which  they  dwell,  deprived  of 
the  culture  which  ought  to  be  secured  in  the  pursuit  of 
that  study,  and  helpless  as  babes  in  the  presence  of  everv 
simple  geological  question.  To  such  ignorance  their 
lives  are  consigned.  They  hear  of  the  great  doctrines  of 
geological  science,  and  no  intelligent  response  is  awakened 
in  mind  or  feeling.  “ Geology  was  not  studied  in  school 
when  I was  a boy,”  or  “when  I was  a girl,”  is  the  only 
consolation  for  a state  of  ignorance  which  would  be 
as  embarrassing,  as  it  is  deplorable,  if  it  were  not  so 
universal. 

It  is  well  for  the  schools  to  organize  themselves  in  cor- 
relation "with  the  University.  But  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  they  are  provided  and  maintained  by  the  peo- 
ple at  large,  and  their  whole  duty  is  not  performed  by 
making  ample  qn'ovision  for  the  education  of  the  few,  and 
neglecting  as  a consequence,  the  proper  education  of  the 
many.  The  first  and  greatest  effort  should  be  to  provide 
a properly  balanced  and  effective  education  for  the  great 
mass.  The  schools  are  created  to  serve  as  agencies  for  dis- 
seminating general  intelligence,  and  furnishing  enlight- 
enment on  all  subjects  about  which  the  American  citi- 
zen needs  to  be  informed.  Such  dissemination  is  not 
very  complete  as  long  as  such  a state  of  ignorance  exists 
that  it  is  not  disgraceful  to  jeer  a science  for  the  employ- 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


165 


ment  of  the  simplest  terms  of  its  vocabulary,  or  turn  aside 
from  a plea  in  behalf  of  a scientific  object,  because  its 
conceptions  are  entirely  outside  the  routine  of  the  cus- 
tomary education  and  business  life.  A high  educational 
dignitary — one  of  the  highest  in  the  land,  recently  under- 
took to  amuse  me  by  narrating  how,  when  Professor  X 
came  to  plead  for  a grant  of  means  for  the  continuance  of 
some  specific  palaeontological  investigation  already  far 
advanced,  he  requested  him  to  put  his  plea  in  popular  lan- 
guage. This  distinguished  official  regarded  it  extremely 
funny  that  he  could  not  comprehend  the  language  neces- 
sarily employed  in  a scientific  work  of  which  he,  alas,  had 
the  official  supervision  and  control.  But  Professor  X’s 
experience  was  the  universal  experience  of  those  who 
have  public  geological  enterjnises  under  their  direction. 
Evidently,  popular  information  about  geology  is  needed 
among  our  public  men.  Evidently,  this  will  never  be 
acquired  unless  imparted  before  they  enter  public  life 
and  the  busy  lanes  of  industry. 

The  wide  neglect  of  geology  is  not  all  ascribable  to  the 
“ diploma  relation.”  It  existed,  though  to  a diminishing 
extent,  before  the  diploma  relation  was  established.  It  is 
the  inheritance  of  a past  which  had  not  heard  of  geology.* 


* The  anachronism  of  medieval  notions  in  modern  schools  is  something 
so  glaring  that  our  students  are  making  the  discovery  for  themselves  before 
their  scholastic  term  of  life  is  fully  wasted.  “Whether  the  old  currieulums 
are  modified  or  not,”  writes  one  who  is  a representative  of  his  class,  “stu- 
dents of  the  present  day  cannot  be  made  to  devote  all  their  energies  to  the 
prosecution  of  a certain  prescribed  line  of  work.  The  conditions  of  to-day 
are  different  from  those  of  a generation  or  two  ago;  preparation  for  profes- 
sions requires  a different  line  of  study;  and  the  colleges  that  do  not  realize 
this  cannot  hope  to  hold  their  own.”— The  Chronicle , Ann  Arbor,  Dec.  8,  1888. 

In  this  connection,  as  also  with  reference  to  the  general  question  of 
science-study,  I beg  to  refer  the  reader  to  a valuable  paper  by  Dr.  W.  X.  Rice, 
in  the  American  Naturalist  for  September  and  October,  1888,  on  “Science- 
teaching in  the  Schools.”  Another  paper  full  of  wise  suggestions  has 


166 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Our  school  courses  have  come  down  to  us  laden  with  the 
learning  which  our  ancestors  most  esteemed.  Our  ances- 
tors rode  in  dog-carts  and  lumber  wagons,  but  this  age 
travels  by  rail.  There  are  those  who  still  think  the  old 
dog-cart  the  most  orthodox  mode  of  locomotion;  and  the 
same  spirit  sits  on  the  old  dog-cart  system  of  education 
trying  to  hold  it  securely.  It  is  quite  true  that  modern 
committees  have  also  sat  on  it,  and  have  ostensibly  revised 
and  modernized  it.  They  have  done  much  good,  but  the 
curriculum  is  still  on  Erasmian  plans  of  the  early  renais- 
sance. It  is  well  filled  with  the  traditional  school  learn- 
ing, with  a few  modern  ideas  “hanging  on  behind,”  like 
street  urchins  stealing  a ride.  The  teachers  send  back 
word  that  “the  course  is  already  full;”  there  is  “lack  of 
time;”  “ we  haven’t  teachers  enough.”  Now,  dear  friends, 
devoted  teachers,  I knew  the  course  was  full:  I under- 
stood that  the  school-board  would  provide  you  full  em- 
ployment; I knew  that  the  period  of  schooling  had  been 
cut  down  to  the  lowest  limit,  and  had  already  been 
crammed  with  arithmetic  and  geography  and  grammar, 
and  I was  satisfied  beforehand  that  these  would  be  your 
reasons  for  the  omission  of  geology.  I was  not  certain  that 
the  teachers  were  alive  to  the  interest  and  value  of  geology 
as  a study,  and  were  already  willing  and  eager  to  greet 
its  introduction,  if  only  the  grim  monster  conservatism 
would  cease  to  gnash  its  prohibitions. 

It  is  only  in  a few  cases  that  the  teachers  seek  to  justify 
the  exclusion  of  geology  on  the  grounds  of  reason.  It  is 
simply  that  the  other  studies  are  in,  and  no  room  is  left 

recently  appeared  from  the  pen  of  Professor  V.  M.  Spalding,  of  the  Univer- 
sity' of  Michigan,  in  The  Academy  for  October,  1888,  on  “The  Scientific 
Advancement  of  the  Age,  and  its  Relation  to  Education. ” This  paper  fans 
precisely  in  the  line  of  the  present  discussion. 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


167 


for  geology.  “Mathematics  was  in;  geology  must  stay 
out.”  This  argument  is  naive,  if  not  logical.  Now,  what 
is  the  reason  that  mathematics  should  be  permitted  to 
usurp  the  whole  time,  if,  as  the  respondent  concedes, 
“ for  argument’s  sake,”  geology  is  capable  of  exerting  an 
equal  educational  influence  ? Is  it  the  same  kind  of  edu- 
cational influence  ? Is  it  not  a more  diversified  influ- 
ence ? Is  it  not  an  influence  exerted  on  mental  powers 
which  mathematics — least  of  all  arithmetic — never  call 
into  exercise  ? Isn’t  the  discipline  of  all  these  powers  of 
equal  importance  with  the  training  of  the  mathematical 
faculties  ? Is  a defender  of  the  status  quo  doing  justice 
to  the  cause  of  education  when  he  inertly  permits  mathe- 
matics to  completely  rob  the  pupil  of  that  broader,  more 
symmetrical,  more  modern,  and  more  beautiful  discipline 
which  comes  from  more  diversified  mental  activities  ? 
The  question  implies  the  answer.  Plainly,  the  inert 
plea  of  prescription  cannot  long  prevail  over  the  living 
principle  of  progressive  education.  “All  progress  in 
science  has  its  corresponding  effects  on  education.”* 

But  if  arithmetic  is  in  and  has  taken  root  from  centu- 
ries of  luxuriance,  how  shall  it  be  displaced  ? If  we 
really  think  it  ought  to  give  way,  to  some  extent,  the 
practical  problem  is  to  make  it  give  way.  I fully  appre- 
ciate the  difficulty  of  the  situation.  I sympathize  with 
the  reluctance  of  the  teacher  or  principal  to  urge  or  even 
propose  innovations  in  the  much-lauded  school  course. 
The  controlling  Boards  are  generally  under  the  thrall  of 
the  “ literary”  spirit.  Most  of  the  authentic  and  recog- 
nized influence  which  they  have  received  has  been  derived 
from  literary  men  or  public  officials,  like  themselves  unfa- 


* CompayrA 


168 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


miliar  with  the  great  truths  of  geological  science.  It  is 
not  a secret,  that  many  principals  and  superintendents  are 
covered  with  the  same  spirit  as  with  an  atmosphere,  and 
feel  no  desire  to  innovate  on  the  traditional  course.  Still, 
it  can  be  no  offense  to  make  suggestions  and  prefer  argu- 
ments. It  needs  only  a discernment  of  the  truth  to  make 
converts  of  all  opposers. 

It  is  a hopeful  sign,  as  well  as  amusing,  to  note  the 
methods  by  which  teachers  smuggle  in  a little  geology  in 
the  form  of  “object  lessons,”  “general  exercises,”  “sup- 
plementary reading” — more  proposed  than  practiced — and 
“ physical  geography.”  Luckily,  some  publisher  or  book 
agent,  some  years  ago,  won  the  ear  of  the  school  officials, 
and  introduced  a new  study  into  the  schools.  It  was 
called  physical  geography — a good  name,  but  the  subject 
matter  is  made  up  of  geology,  zoology,  and  botany.  The 
taste  of  this  has  proved  gratifying,  and  the  study  has 
grown  popular.  But  meantime  the  school  officials  have 
not  opened  their  eyes  to  the  fact  that  one-half  the  study 
is  pure  geology.  It  is  almost  unavoidable  that  the  intel- 
ligent teacher  should  “branch  off”  occasionally  and  smug- 
gle in  some  geology  not  in  the  book.  The  irregularity  is 
to  be  commended.  By  the  other  methods  also,  much 
geological  information  may  be  insinuated  into  the  instruc- 
tion, and  everybody  will  he  delighted,  if  it  is  done  with 
discretion.  I desire,  in  another  connection,  to  be  more 
explicit  on  this  point.  If  the  teacher,  convinced  of  the 
usefulness  of  geological  study,  will  avail  himself — or  more 
probably,  herself — of  these  methods  of  pressing  the  claims 
of  the  study,  it  will  soon  happen  that  the  doors  will  open, 
and  geology  will  step  in,  and  arithmetic  will  step  out — 
somewhere. 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


169 


The  reform  is  also  pressed  upon  us  from  without.  It 
already  appears  that  most  of  the  leading  teachers  are  fav- 
orable to  the  admission  of  geology  into  high  schools  and 
lower  schools.  Some  increase  of  apathy  is  revealed  in 
proportion  as  we  enter  the  atmosphere  of  the  controlling 
personalities.  But  the  body  of  teachers  represent  the  pub- 
lic sentiment.  There  are  thousands  of  intelligent  adults 
in  every  State  who  have  informed  themselves  respecting 
the  grandeur  of  geologic  studies.  They  have  not  yet 
descended  to  the  simple  facts  which  serve  as  starting- 
points  for  geologic  study,  in  distinction  from  geologic 
dilletantism.  But  they  feel  favorable  to  geology,  and 
desire  their  sons  and  daughters  to  become  more  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  it.  The  popular  books  which 
have  been  so  widely  circulated  within  a few  years,  are 
generally  credited  with  the  dissemination  of  a popular 
taste  for  geologic  reading  and  study.*  The  establish- 
ment of  the  Agassiz  Association,  under  the  energetic 
management  of  Principal  II.  H.  Ballard,  is  also  an  im- 
portant agency  in  the  increase  of  popular  intelligence  on 
geology  and  cognate  subjects.  This  is  an  organization  of 
young  persons,  with  an  aggregate  membership  of  several 
thousand,  f Most  of  these  young  persons  are  still  in  the 
public  schools,  and  would  probably  have  taken  natural 
history  in  school,  if  the  public  schools  had  provided  for 

* I will  ask  the  reader's  pardon  for  stating  that,  of  the  authors  ‘'Sketches 
of  Creation,”  about  20.000  copies  have  been  sold:  and  of  his  more  recent 
work,  ‘‘Walks  and  Talks  in  the  Geological  Field,"  4-3,000  copies  are  in  circu- 
lation : while  of  the  latter,  2.500  were  sold  in  Michigan. 

t Superintendent  Ballard's  last  manual,  entitled  “The  Three  Kingdoms,” 
does  not  give  this  aggregate.  A personal  communication,  however,  from 
Superintendent  Ballard  informs  me  that  the  aggregate  enrollment  since 
1880  is  about  15,000  members,  organized  in  1.000  chapters.  The  number  of 
active  members  to-day  is  about  7.000.  and  the  number  of  chapters,  050. 


170 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


the  demand.  The  existence  of  such  a vast  association  of 
young  persons  seeking  to  satisfy  wants  not  met  by  the 
schools  is  a burning  rebuke  to  the  “school  system  ” which 
still  survives,  and  continues  to  turn  a deaf  ear  to  the 
rising  outcry.  What  means  this  other  organization  known 
as  the  “Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,” 
with  its  50,000  members,  all  of  whom  are  reading,  among 
other  things,  a popular  work  on  geology  ? Are  not  these 
evidences  that  the  public  taste,  public  appreciation,  and 
public  demand  have  quite  outstripped  the  ponderous  and 
weary  pace  of  our  decrepit  old  “school  system  ?” 

It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  general  information  is  rap- 
idly increasing,  and  its  influence  will  press  more  and 
more  sensibly  against  the  conservatism  of  the  schools.  In 
other  states  the  schools  are  already  yielding  to  it.  The 
fact  is  a conspicuous  one,  that  Michigan  is  behind  several 
other  states  in  friendliness  to  geological  study.  As  exam- 
iner of  candidates  for  admission  to  the  University,  I am  in 
position  to  contrast  the  paucity  of  Michigan  applicants 
prepared  in  geology  with  the  numbers  sent  especially  by 
Illinois  and  Ohio.  It  is  a matter  of  knowledge  also,  that 
Pennsylvania,  New  York  and  Massachusetts  so  often  the 
leader  in  educational  enterprise,  are  extending  to  geology 
a hospitable  greeting.  In  Massachusetts  much  is  due  to 
the  energetic  and  rational  efforts  of  Mr.  Alpheus  Hyatt 
of  the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History,  and  the  excel- 
lent teaching  system  organized  by  Professor  W.  O.  Crosby 
of  the  Institute  of  Technology.  But  it  must  be  remem- 
bered also,  that  Massachusetts  has  long  been  favored  with 
a body  of  educational  officials  friendly  toward  natural 
history  studies.  Writing  from  memory,  I recall  the  lect- 
ures, years  ago  delivered  before  teachers’  instituted,  by 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


171 


the  elder  Agassiz,  under  state  authority.  I recall  the 
names  of  Professor  Sanborn  Tenney  and  William  Denton, 
official  lecturers  before  the  institutes  of  the  state,  on 
zoology  and  geology;  and  I recall  the  assemblies  of  teach- 
ers gathered  under  state  authority,  at  Boston,  to  listen  to 
the  instructions  of  Hyatt,  Crosby  and  other  experts.  In 
the  advance  of  educational  ideas,  Massachusetts  has  gen- 
erally been  in  the  van. 

To  some  of  the  objections  raised  by  teachers  who  have 
corresponded  with  me,  I desire  to  give  special  attention. 
The  misapprehension  exists  to  some  extent,  that  geology 
is  a study  suitable  only  for  pupils  of  advancement  and 
maturity.  “ Our  high  school  is  but  recently  organized  ” 
is  the  reply  of  some.  “We  have  no  pupils  sufficiently 
advanced  ” is  the  response  of  others.  “ We  have  no 
teachers  competent  to  take  up  the  work”  is  learned 
from  some  quarters;  while  one  respondent  declares  that 
geology  belongs  only  in  college.  It  is  an  error  to 
imagine  that  geology  in  all  its  grades  and  departments 
is  an  advanced  study.  It  begins  with  the  simplest  and 
most  familiar  facts.  It  advances  by  processes  of  wider 
observation  and  awakened  reflection,  to  a grasp  of  the 
fundamental  principles;  it  stimulates  imagination,  and  in 
its  ultimate  processes,  elicits  the  best  powers  of  deductive 
thought.  When  I recommend  geology  for  the  very 
young,  I contemplate  those  features  of  the  science  suited 
to  the  stage  of  intellectual  development  of  the  young. 
When  I recommend  the  study  for  maturer  minds,  I con- 
template the  same  method  of  beginning  with  familiar 
facts,  but  proceeding  more  rapidly  to  the  induction  of 
principles;  and  to  the  higher  efforts  of  intelligence  de- 
manded by  the  higher  ranges  of  the  science. 


172 


SHALL  AVE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Analogous  to  this  misconception  is  that  of  the  necessity 
of  a considerable  illustrative  collection  at  hand.  “ We 
have  no  facilities  for  teaching  geology,”  says  one.  I 
have  no  doubt  the  impression  prevails  to  some  extent, 
that  the  teaching  of  geology  with  success,  requires  a col- 
lection of  “ rare  and  costly”  specimens.  This  is  a great 
error.  The  more  rare  and  costly,  the  more  useless  for  the 
beginner.  He  works  most  successfully  with  the  common- 
est and  cheapest.  He  is  surrounded  by  a geological 
museum  more  valuable  than  the  .most  bewildering  array 
of  strange  and  striking  beasts  and  petrifications,  ores  and 
glittering  minerals,  which  exists  on  the  continent.  Wher- 
ever the  Drift  is  distributed,  the  student  is  supplied  with 
more  rock  varieties  than  three  collectors  could  bring 
together  in  three  seasons  spent  in  the  wildernesses  about 
Lake  Superior.  These  are  as  truly  rock  specimens  as  if 
found  in  place.  They  show  as  truly  the  characters  of  the 
different  species  of  rocks  and  of  minerals  forming  them, 
as  if  brought  at  great  expense  from  their  native  ledges. 
These  cost  nothing.  They  are  not  only  the  gift  of  nature, 
but  a gift  delivered  at  our  doors — carriage  free.  The 
elementary  course  in  the  University  employs  for  its 
inauguration,  no  other  “facilities”  than  the  bowlders 
from  the  fields.  Each  class  collects  these  for  itself. 
Thousands  are  retained  by  individuals,  and  kept  labeled 
for  future  reference,  in  distant  homes. 

My  esteemed  correspondent  at  Bay  City  affirms  that  in 
his  place  “ there  is  little  to  enthuse  one  in  the  subject  of 
geology,  except  our  salt  formations,  while  zoology  has 
much  to  make  it  full  of  life.”  I feel  that  the  exception 
is  bigger  than  the  body  of  the  affirmation.  “Nothing 
except  our  salt  formations  !” — the  most  productive  and 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


173 


most  wonderful  salt  formations  on  the  continent.  How 
deep  do  they  lie  ? What  are  they  ? How  does  the  brine 
occur  in  those  rocks  ? How  did  it  find  its  way  into  them  ? 
How  were  the  rocks  formed  ? Have  you  examined  the 
borings  which  come  from  the  wells  ? Have  you  attempted 
to  classify  them  mineralogically  ? Have  you  inquired 
into  the  position  which  those  strata  hold  in  the  entire 
series  of  rocks  ? How  many  brine-bearing  formations 
under  the  Saginaw  valley  ? Any  coal  encountered  in 
boring  there  ? Look  at  it ; what  is  it  ? What  infer- 
ences may  be  drawn  from  it  as  to  nature,  origin,  his- 
tory ? Have  you  traveled  a few  miles  east  or  north  from 
Bay  City,  and  found  the  outcropping  rocks  ? Have  you 
taken  some  of  your  boys  there  ? Whac  kind  of  rocks  are 
they  ? Which  way  do  they  dip  ? Do  they  apparently 
pass  under  Bay  City  ? Any  fossils  in  them  ? How  did 
they  get  there  ? Step  out  of  your  class-room  and  sink 
your  feet  in  the  alluvium  at  your  door.  What  is  it  ? 
What  is  it  made  of  ? Where  did  it  come  from  P To  how 
high  a level  can  you  trace  it  ? Is  the  amount  of  alluvium 
increasing  P Do  you  find  any  layers  of  sand  and  gravel 
underneath  it  ? How  do  they  differ  from  solid  rocks  ? 
Had  rocks  any  analogous  origin  ? These  and  a thousand 
other  queries  on  the  geological  facts  existing  even  at  Bay 
City,  awaken  thought,  beget  interest,  and  start  the 
inquirer  on  a road  which  he  will  jmrsue  with  ever  increas- 
ing momentum.  Saginaw  has  the  same  geological  sur- 
roundings as  Bay  City  ; but  at  Saginaw,  Mr.  Sherzer 
found  a good  deal  to  “enthuse  one.”  I found  him  man- 
aging a class  of  fifty  or  sixty  pupils,  in  two  sections,  and 
every  individual  appeared  to  be  enthused.  These  state- 
ments are  not  intended  as  censure  on  my  Bay  City 


174  SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 

correspondent  for  the  choice  made  between  zoology  and 
geology — that  was  right — but  only  an  exposure  of  the 
groundlessness  of  the  last — and  I may  believe  the  least,  of 
the  reasons  for  his  choice. 

Several  correspondents  who  say  nothing  about  crowded 
courses,  complain  of  the  lack  of  a suitable  text-book. 
Those  who  are  teaching  by  means  of  object  lessons  have 
caught  the  correct  idea.  “ Whatever  presents  itself  to  our 
senses,”  says  Montaigne,  “is  a sufficient  book.”*  The 
fields  are  a text-book,  the  bowlders,  the  ground,  the  soil, 
the  gorge  dug  by  the  streams,  the  river- valley,  the  alluvial 
plain,  the  peat-bog,  the  marl-bed,  the  outcropping  lime- 
stone or  sandstone.  These  are  full  of  suggestions — and 
equally  full  of  questions  for  the  teacher  and  pupil  to 
ponder  over.  But  the  proper  use  of  nature’s  text-book 
demands  some  previous  knowledge ; and  the  teacher 
probably  was  educated  in  one  of  those  schools  where 
“geology  was  not  taught.”  In  such  case,  the  teacher 
must  rely  upon  the  aid  of  a text-book.  It  is  undoubt- 
edly such  a teacher  who  complains  that  the  text-books 
are  unsatisfactory.  The  statement  is  quite  true.  They 
are  generally  compiled  after  the  didactic  fashion,  like  a 
work  on  logic.  It  is  not  surprising  that  one  correspond- 
ent complains  that  the  study  proved  uninteresting  to  both 
teacher  and  pupil ; and  that  another  declared  that  only 
a portion 'of  the  study  was  enjoyed  ; and  still  another, 
that  it  was  lacking  in  educational  value.  Ivot  improbably, 
the  tough  text-book  was  the  cause  of  that  other  opinion, 
that  the  study  was  suited  only  for  minds  of  considerable 
maturity.  We  understand  now,  that  it  is  only  the  book 
which  possesses  such  mature  adaptability.  The  subject, 


Montaigne : Essays,  bk.  i,  eh.  i. 


OBSTACLES  TO  REFORM. 


175 


unobscured  by  a misconceived  text-book,  possesses  the 
utmost  simplicity.  But  good  text-books,  following  the 
method  of  nature,  are  now  to  be  had  ; and  the  teacher 
who  from  necessity  or  choice,  and  without  previous  train- 
ing, assumes  charge  of  a class,  needs  no  longer  to  shrink 
from  the  undertaking. 


XII. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL 
METHOD. 

HE  spirit  of  the  observational  method  requires  that 


each  instructor  in  geology  begin  the  subject  with 
the  facts  which  immediately  surround  him.  Supposing 
him  possessed  of  adequate  knowledge  to  proceed  inde- 
pendently, he  may  begin  by  directing  attention  to  the 
prominent  geological  features  of  the  neighborhood. 
These  may  be,  in  one  place,  the  bedded  rocks  of  a quarry, 
as  at  Berea,  Joliet,  or  Portland,  Connecticut ; in  another, 
deep-cut  rock  gorges,  with  or  without  inclosed  fossils,  as 
at  Ithaca,  Watkins’  Glen,  or  Claiborne,  Alabama ; in  a 
third,  a widely  eroded  and  crumbling  surface  strewn  with 
organic  forms  weathered  out,  as  at  Cincinnati,  Nashville, 
or  Selma,  or  other  places  in  the  southern  states ; in  a 
fourth,  a rock-girt  beach  of  crystalline  masses  of  various 
composition  and  character,  as  at  Lynn,  or  Nahant,  or  Mar- 
quette ; in  a fifth,  a prairie  surface,  as  at  Chicago,  or 
Peoria ; in  a sixth,  a deep  broad,  alluvial  expanse,  as  at 
Cairo,  or  New  Orleans,  or  Detroit ; in  a seventh,  a group 
of  coal  mines,  as  at  Wilkesbarre  or  La  Salle. 

Each  situation  is  what  it  is  through  the  action  of  geo- 
logic forces.  Each  is  a geologic  result,  and  stimulates 
inquiries  like  these  : What  kind  of  action  caused  this  ? 

What  actions  have  I been  witness  of  whk-h  produced 
results  analogous  to  these  ? Were  they  actions  of  rivers, 
or  overflows,  or  waves  ? Would  any  of  the  actions  with 


1T6 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  177 


which  I am  familiar  produce  these  results  if  their  scale  of 
activity  were  greatly  enlarged  ? Are  the  results  which  I 
see  here  a completed  work  ? or  is  the  work  still  progress- 
ing ? If  it  continues  to  progress,  what  condition  will  be 
reached  in  the  remote  future  ? These  and  a thousand 
other  queries  may  be  raised  over  every  situation  in  which 
we  may  be  placed.  But  these  queries  are  really  reflective. 
Their  answers  imply  reasoning.  Their  answers  require  a 
closer  observation  of  the  facts  which  prompt  them.  To 
such  observation  our  curiosity  drives  us.  Let  us  then 
look  somewhat  particularly  into  the  facts  which  we  see — 
which  we  all  see — which  all  see  equally  well.  But  the 
particular  facts  are  different  in  different  situations.  We 
must  suppose  ourselves  in  some  particular  situation.  Let 
us  then  place  ourselves  successively  in  several  different 
situations,  and  consider  what  may  be  seen  in  each,  and 
what  may  be  reasoned  from  it. 

1.  A Quarry  Region,  as  at  Potsdam,  N.  Y.,  Portland, 
Conn.,  Berea,  0.,  Joliet,  111.  Here  I address  myself  to 
the  young  student.  You  notice  that  the  rocks  which 
these  workmen  are  quarrying  lie  in  beds  or  layers.  Each 
of  these  is  a stratum.  The  separation  between  one 
stratum  and  another  is  generally  a very  narrow  fissure  or 
joint.  Often,  however,  you  find  the  joint  filled  with  some 
other  kind  of  material.  This  is  a seam.  Sometimes  the 
seam  is  of  an  earthy  or  clayey  character.  Sometimes 
one  stratum  is  so  closely  joined  to  another,  that  one  can 
scarcely  say  there  exists  either  seam  or  joint.  Observe  all 
this  for  yourself.  Generally  you  find  several  strata  in 
immediate  succession  much  alike.  Do  you  see  them  so 
here?  Or  do  you  find  a decided  contrast  of  two  adjoin- 
ing strata  ? In  what  does  the  contrast  consist  ? Are 


178 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


they  of  different  color  ? Of  different  fineness  ? Of 
different  degrees  of  homogeneity,  or  likeness  of  substance 
from  side  to  side  ? Can  you  detect  any  lines  running 
along  the  broken  edges  of  any  of  the  strata  ? What  are 
they  due  to  ? What  renders  them  visible  and  distinguish- 
able ? These  are  lines  of  lamination.  If  we  have  a sand- 
stone here,  perhaps  we  shall  find  some  laminae  running 
obliquely  across  the  broken  edges  of  certain  strata.  This 
is  oblique  lamination.  Look  at  some  of  these  blocks  which 
have  been  quarried  ; tell  me  which  was  the  upper  side. 
How  does  the  upper  differ  from  the  lower  side  ? Do 
these  strata  lie  in  a horizontal  position  ? Does  the  upper 
surface  present  any  inclination  ? What  angle  does  it 
make  with  a horizontal  plane  ? Is  it  five  degrees  ? Is  it 
twenty  degrees  ? This  angle  is  the  dip  of  the  stratum. 
Here  is  an  angle  of  ninety  degrees  between  this  horizontal 
and  this  perpendicular  line.  Half  of  this  is  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees  ; and  half  of  this  is  an  angle  of  2211 
degrees.  Represent  such  an  angle.  Represent  an  angle 
of  eleven  degrees.  Toward  what  direction  does  this 
stratum  dip  ? It  is  southwest,  perhaps.  Then  the  strike 
is  northwest  and  southeast.  How  thick  is  this  stratum 
— measure  it  with  a rule.  How  thick  is  the  nest  one? 
Come  to  the  wall  of  the  quarry  and  measure  its  entire 
height.  Sit  down  and  make  a sketch  of  this  wall.  Dis- 
tinguish each  stratum  exactly  as  it  is.  Preserve  their 
proportional  thicknesses.  Describe  each  stratum  sepa- 
rately, beginning  at  the  bottom.  Let  the  strata  be  desig- 
nated A,  B,  C,  D,  etc.  In  describing  give  kind  of  rock, 
color,  texture,  solidity,  purity  or  impurity,  homogeneity 
or  want  of  it,  thickness.  State  which  stratum  is  best 
adapted  to  the  uses  to  which  the  stone  is  applied.  As 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  179 


bearing  on  the  uses,  yon  may  take  a fragment  home  and 
weigh  it  in  its  natural  condition — then  weigh  it  after  dry- 
ing as  completely  as  you  have  means  for.  If  you  have  no 
balance,  go  to  the  apothecary,  or  omit  this  experiment. 
Then  also  with  reference  to  use,  you  may  observe  whether 
the  stone  wears  away  much  on  surfaces  exposed  to  the 
weather.  Does  it  weather  smooth  ? Does  it  weather  into 
concave  depressions  ? Do  fissures  appear  in  it  ? Does  it 
develop  rusty  specks  or  blotches?  If  so,  these  are  proba- 
bly caused  by  iron  in  it.  At  some  time,  we  will  reason 
out  the  changes  which  take  place.  Do  you  discover  some 
circular  iron-stains,  with  rings  of  various  shades  of  color? 

But  we  pause  here.  The  points  noticed  are  all  geo- 
logical facts  which  the  young  pupil  will  see  for  himself, 
especially  if  judiciously  prompted.  What  I have  sug- 
gested would  be  the  occupation  of  several  hours — of 
several  eager  and  delightful  hours.  But  the  lesson  of  the 
quarry  is  only  partly  told.  Look  particularly  at  the 
composition  of  this  sandstone.  Use  a magnifier.  Do 
you  see  the  separate  grains  ? About  how  large  are  they  ? 
Are  they  sharply  angular  ? Are  they  precisely  spherical  or 
are  they  rounded-angular  ? Do  they  seem  to  have  been 
angular  once,  and  afterward  rounded  at  their  angles  ? How 
hard  are  these  grains  ? Can  you  crush  them  between  your 
teeth  ? Take  the  flat  side  of  your  knife-blade  and  draw 
it  across  some  of  these  grains.  Do  they  produce  scratches? 
Then  the  grains  are  of  quartz.  Quartz  is  a mineral.  It 
is  the  hardest  mineral  which  exists  abundantly.  At  some 
time  I will  show  you  some  crystals  of  quartz.  Look  again 
with  your  magnifier ; do  you  discover  anything  which 
sticks  these  grains  together  ? Nothing  ? That  is  very 
unexpected  ; what  holds  them  together  ? This  must  be 


180 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


inquired  into  at  some  time.  Yes,  you  say,  you  do  see 
some  white  substance  filling  the  little  spaces  amongst  the 
grains.  Does  it  look  like  chalk  or  limestone  ? There  is 
a quick  way  to  test  it.  We  will  take  a piece  home  and 
put  a drop  of  muriatic  acid  on  it.  If  effervescence  ensues, 
the  cement  is  a carbonate.  But  this  must  be  explained  in 
due  time.  So  we  may  proceed  and  detect  by  inspection 
the  presence  of  an  argillaceous  substance.  This  makes 
an  argillaceom  sandstone.  The  rock  may  be  reddish  or 
rusty.  This  shows  the  presence  of  iron-oxide.  What 
this  is  can  be  explained  and  illustrated  at  some  time  while 
the  substance  is  at  hand. 

The  reader  will  understand  how  a thoughtful  inquiring 
concerning  the  features  observed  in  the  quarry  must  con- 
tinue to  lead  our  thoughts  deeper  and  deeper  into  the 
subject.  With  an  informed  teacher  to  prompt,  to  answer 
questions  which  the  pupil  cannot  answer,  to  give  the 
names  as  occasion  for  them  arises,  the  occupation  will  be 
delightful  and  improving.  In  due  time,  we  think  about 
the  origin  of  these  strata.  We  point  out  the  resemblance 
of  the  bedding  to  the  beds  of  silt  left  by  the  last  overflow 
of  the  stream  ; and,  so  by  degrees,  the  pupil’s  thought 
rises  to  the  conception  of  sedimentation  as  the  cause  of 
the  layered  arrangement.  If  fossils  are  included  in  the 
rocks,  these  confirm  the  evidence  of  aqueous  sedimenta- 
tion. By  due  processes  of  comparison,  we  perceive  that 
these  fossils  belonged  to  salt  water  and  not  to  fresh. 
The  sediments  were  therefore  marine.  The  sea  therefore, 
was  once  here.  And  thus  we  are  led  on  to  the  various 
conclusions  which  constitute  the  doctrines  of  geological 
science.  All  these  lessons  from  the  quarry  may  well 
and  profitably  occupy  a term  of  school. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  181 


2.  A Fossiliferous  Region,  as  at  Cincinnati  or  Lebanon, 
0.,  Nashville,  Columbia  or  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  Frankfort 
or  Lexington,  Ky.,  Watertown  or  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
Petoskey  or  Alpena,  Mich.,  Winona,  Rochester  or  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  Goderich,  Woodstock  or  Montreal,  Canada. 
Let  us  suppose  ourselves  at  Cincinnati.  We  ascend  the 
hills  on  the  north  of  the  city,  and  look  over  the  valley  in 
which  the  city  lies.  High  ground  appears  also  on  the 
south  of  the  Ohio.  The  river  has  evidently  cut  a passage 
for  itself,  and  is  now  sunken  deep  into  the  gorge  along 
which  it  flows.  On  the  west,  the  hills  on  the  opposite 
sides  approach  each  other.  Thus  as  we  prolong  our 
outlook  and  continue  to  receive  the  suggestions  of  the 
situation,  we  arrive  at  a clear  conception  of  an  eroded 
river  valley,  of  a stupendous  work  performed,  and  think 
of  the  material  removed  and  its  place  of  deposit — alluvial 
flat,  delta,  io,r,  gulf-sediment  and  so  on — of  the  organic 
forms  mingling  in  the  Gulf  with  the  subsiding  sediments 
— of  their  future  consolidation — of  the  work  of  rock- 
making everywhere.  Thus  from  the  very  heights — from 
the  simple  outlook,  a volume  of  geology  may  be  read. 
But  these  are  not  the  observations  which  on  later  occa- 
sions would  occujiy  us.  In  ascending  by  the  inclined 
railway,  we  notice  the  outcropping  edges  of  strata.  On 
these  we  may  observe  and  reason  until  we  shall  have 
induced  all  the  conclusions  sustained  by  quarry-studies, 
as  already  pointed  out.  But  here  are  still  other  facts. 
Of  these  wre  wish  to  speak.  Let  us  collect  a quantity 
of  these  fossil  forms  strewn  over  the  surface.  We  may 
well  spend  some  days  making  collections  before  we 
attempt  to  study  them.  We  may  note  what  sorts  of 
fossils  we  obtain  at  the  summit  of  the  hill ; what,  at 


182 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


different  distances  down  the  slope.  We  may  go  to  the 
Kentucky  side  of  the  river  and  learn  whether  the  fossils 
appear  to  be  the  same  as  those  on  the  Ohio  side  ; and 
whether  they  are  distributed  in  the  same  way  at  the  dif- 
ferent elevations.  We  may  fix  on  some  method  of  indi- 
cating the  level  at  which  the  fossils  occur  on  either  side. 
We  may  prepare  small  tickets  and  attach  them  by  means 
of  geological  cement,  and  on  these  write  letters  or  Roman 
numerals,  or  other  marks  denoting  place  in  the  series  of 
strata  at  which  each  fossil  is  found.  All  good  geological 
workers  do  this. 

But  now,  whether  this  is  done  or  not,  let  us  begin  to 
study  our  fossils.  Suppose  the  collection  before  us  all  in 
confusion.  Every  one  can  state  that  some  of  the  objects 
are  corals  and  some  are  shells.  Separate  the  corals  from 
the  shells  and  lay  them  aside.  Now  assort  the  shells  as 
best  you  can.  You  note  at  least,  some  groups  like  the 
following  : Numerous  specimens  are  somewhat  semi-cir- 

cular in  outline.  There  is  one  edge  straight,  and  the 
length  of  it  is  nearly  a diameter  of  the  semi- circle  formed 
by  the  other  sides.  In  some  it  is  a little  less,  and  in 
others  a little  more,  so  that  the  extremities  of  this  dia- 
meter reach  into  little  earlike  projections.  We  call  them 
ears.  Notice  how  rigidly  straight  this  line  is.  We  call 
it  the  hinge-line.  The  two  valves  or  pieces  which  con- 
stitute the  shell  were  hinged  together  along  this  line. 
But  observe,  the  two  valves  are  no  longer  open.  They 
are  attached  closely  by  mineral  material.  You  feel  aston- 
ished at  the  thinness  of  some  of  these  shells.  There  is  a 
convexity  on  one  side  and  a concavity  on  the  other,  and  it 
looks  as  if  the  two  valves  were  only  one.  Do  not  be 
deceived.  Both  valves  are  here.  You  see  the  exterior 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  183 


of  both.  But  they  must  be  nearly  in  contact.  How 
little  space  existed  for  the  ancient  animal  which  dwelt 
between  them,  like  the  clam  between  the  two  valves  of 
its  shell.  Inspect  the  exteriors.  Do  you  notice  little 
ridges  starting  from  the  middle  of  the  hinge-line,  and 
diverging  toward  the  opposite  margin  ? We  call  these 
ribs.  That  is  only  the  name  for  them,  since  they  possess 
no  real  analogy  to  ribs  of  vertebrates.  Perhaps  these 
ridges  are  fine  or  very  fine  ; if  so,  they  are  strife.  Some- 
times the  ribs  themselves  are  striated.  Count  the  ribs  on 
one  valve.  Count  the  striae  on  another  shell,  if  they  are 
not  too  numerous.  Count  them  on  other  specimens 
looking  exactly  like  these.  You  find  them  nearly  the 
same  in  number.  Do  you  find  the  same  number  around 
the  margin  as  half  way  up  to  the  middle  of  the  hinge- 
line ? Or  does  the  number  increase  as  you  approach  the 
margin  ? What  is  the  method  of  increase — do  fine  strias 
branch  off  from  the  main  striae  ; or  do  the  main  striae 
split  each  into  two  ; or  do  new  striae  or  ribs  appear  mid- 
way between  two  former  ones  ? If  you  were  reading  some 
palaeontologist’s  description  of  one  of  these  shells  you 
would  find  these  distinctions  noticed. 

You  observed  that  one  valve  is  convex  and  the  other 
concave.  Look  again  at  the  convex  valve  and  notice  that 
the  striae  or  ribs  (whichever  they  are  on  this  specimen) 
converge  toward  a point  which  is  a little  more  prominent 
than  the  other  parts  of  the  valve.  This  point  is  the  beak. 
Does  it  project  beyond  the  hinge-line  ? Does  it  stand  out 
from  the  hinge-line,  or  bend  over  toward  it  ? If  it  bends 
over,  the  most  prominent  part  of  this  valve  is  just  behind 
it.  This  is  the  icmbo.  But  you  will  notice  a difference 
among  these  shells  as  to  the  valve  which  has  the  most 


184 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


prominent  beak  ; sometimes  it  is  tlie  convex  valve,  and 
sometimes  the  concave  one.  In  the  latter  case,  the  beak 
stands  out  sharp  and  conspicuous.  The  valve  having  the 
most  prominent  beak  is  called  the  ventral  valve.  You 
will  find  in  studying  many  shells  with  central  beaks,  that 
the  ventral  valve  is  almost  always  the  most  convex.  Now 
if  you  look  behind  one  of  these  prominent  beaks — that  is, 
between  it  and  the  hinge-line,  you  will  discover  a small 
flat  space  ; this  is  the  area.  Often  the  area  extends, 
with  narrowed  width,  quite  to  the  extremities  of  the 
hinge-line.  In  some  of  the  semi-circular  forms,  you  find 
an  area  in  each  valve.  Observing  closely,  you  will  see  in 
some  of  these  shells,  just  beneath  the  beak,  a triangular 
opening.  This  is  called  the  notch  or  fissure.  In  some  you 
find  a fissure  in  each  valve.  Now,  there  is  one  feature 
further  to  be  noticed.  Along  the  convex  valve,  in  some 
of  these  shells,  may  be  seen  a depression  extending  from 
the  beak  to  the  opposite  margin.  It  is  narrow  and  incon- 
spicuous near  the  beak,  and  gradually  widens.  Sometimes 
it  begins  near  the  middle  of  the  valve  ; but  in  such  case 
it  begins  somewhat  wide  at  once.  This  depression  is  the 
sinus.  Often  it  contains  several  ribs.  It  belongs  to  the 
ventral  valve.  Also,  when  the  sinus  is  present,  there  is 
generally  an  elevation  on  the  opposite  valve.  Search  the 
specimens  and  find  it  so.  This  is  called  the  fold.  Often 
several  of  the  ribs  are  located  on  it. 

AVe  are  considering  only  the  shells  having  a somewhat 
semi-circular  form.  Place  them  all  in  a group.  Now 
select  those  in  which  you  discover  a sinus  and  fold.  From 
these  select  the  ribbed  forms,  leaving  those  simply  stri- 
ated. In  these  you  will  find  an  area  in  each  valve — is 
that  so  ? These  areas  are  nearly  equal.  Also,  there  is  a 


APPLICATION"  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  185 


triangular  notch  in  the  middle  of  each  area — is  that  so  ? 
Now,  besides  these  which  have  the  semi-circular  outline, 
you  have  numerous  others  which  closely  resemble  them 
except  in  having  a longer  hingq-line,  with  sharp  pro- 
jecting extremities.  Then  there  are  some  intermediate 
between  these  extremes.  They  are  all  coarse-ribbed.  The 
sinus  is  deep  and  wide,  with  several  ribs ; and  the  fold 
conspicuous  also  with  ribs.  Put  them  all  together.  They 
all  belong  to  one  genus,  and  probably  one  species. 
Now,  the  name  of  the  genus  is  Or'-tliis,  and  the  name  of 
the  species  is  bif-o-rd-ta.  The  complete  name  of  the 
species  is  Orthis  biforata.  Or  this  corresponds  to  the  sur- 

name of  a man,  and  biforata  to  the  Christian  name. 
There  are  many  other  species  of  this  genus,  and  they  all 
appear  quite  differently  from  these  ; so  you  must  not 
form  your  conception  of  Orthis  from  these  specimens. 
The  real  characters  of  the  genus  are  found  on  the  inner 
surfaces  of  the  valves.  When  you  collect  separated  valves, 
you  can  see  many  of  the  internal  characters.  At  some 
other  opportunity  we  will  ascertain  what  are  the  common 
characters  of  Orthis,  however  the  different  species  differ 
externally.  * 

Next,  if  among  the  forms  with  sinus  and  fold,  you  find 
any  simply  striated,  these  belong  to  a genus  known  as 
Stroph-o-me-na. 

Now,  of  the  semi-circular  shells  you  have  separated  only 
those  which  have  a conspicuous  sinus  and  fold,  and  you 
have  placed  with  the  ribbed  forms,  many  which  are  not 
plainly  semi-circular,  because  in  all  other  respects  they 
agree.  Next,  consider  the  semi-circular  shells  which  have 

*This  subject  is  further  explained,  with  illustrations,  in  the  author’s  Geo- 
logical Studies,  p.  228. 


186 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


no  sinus  and  fold,  or  scarcely  any.  In  these  also,  you 
find  an  area  in  each  valve,  but  that  in  the  ventral  valve  is 
broadest,  and  has  a triangular  notch  which  is  sometimes 
covered  by  a convex  shelly  covering,  called  a pseu-do-del- 
tid'-i-um.  Do  not  be  startled  at  this  name;  it  is  very 
uncommon  for  length,  and  got  its  enormous  growth  by 
having  to  prefix  pseudo  (false)  to  the  pretty  little  name 
deltidium  (which  means  a triangular  piece — shaped  like 
the  Greek  letter  Delta).  A true  deltidium  is  flat  and  not 
firmly  attached  in  its  place.  This  is  not  flat,  and  is  firmly 
attached.  In  these  shells  you  find  the  ventral  valve  some- 
times convex  and  sometimes  concave.  The  hinge-extrem- 
ities are  generally  sharp  or  scarcely  rounded,  and  the 
hinge-line  is  the  greatest  width  of  the  shell.  These 
nearly  all  belong  to  the  genus  Stroph-o-me-na.  There  are 
several  species.  You  may  find  a small,  rather  elongate 
sort,  with  a silky  or  pearly  exterior,  which  belongs  to 
the  genus  Lep-tce' -na,  and  the  most  common  species  of 
this  is  Leptcena  sericea.  I ought  to  state  that  many  geol- 
ogists are  of  the  opinion  that  those  forms  having  the 
ventral  valve  concave  ought  not  to  be  regarded  as  belong- 
ing in  the  same  genus  with  those  having  the  ventral  valve 
convex.  If  we  separate  them,  they  fall  into  the  genus 
Hem-i-pro-ni' -tes. 

We  have  remaining  a lot  of  specimens  which  cannot  be 
described  as  semi-circular,  but  still  the  hinge-line  is  from 
two-thirds  to  one-third  the  greatest  width  of  the  shell.  It 
is  sometimes  even  longer.  The  extremities  of  the  shell 
and  of  the  liinge-line  are  rounded.  Neither  valve  is  really 
concave,  but  sometimes  the  ventral  valve  has  so  deep  and 
broad  a sinus,  that  the  dorsal  is  most  prominent.  The 
beak  of  the  ventral  valve  stands  out  at  right  angles  with 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  187 

the  plane  of  the  shell.  You  can  readily  select  the  shells 
of  this  sort.  They  all  belong  to  the  genus  Orthis.  Put 
them  apart.  Now  separate  them  into  their  separate  sorts 
or  species. 

We  might  go  on  and  point  out  the  characters  of  the  dif- 
ferent sjiecies.  A well  qualified  teacher  will  do  this.  But 
in  all  cases,  the  pupil  must  perform  the  work  first,  ac- 
cording to  his  best  ability.  He  must  not  be  allowed  to 
dismiss  it  without  care  and  study,  nor  to  escape  by  saying 
he  is  unable  to  do  it.  His  reluctance  will  be  found  to 
result  from  diffidence — not  lack  of  interest. 

We  have  mentioned  only  the  shells  which  are  semi-cir- 
cular or  nearly  that,  or  at  least  have  a hinge-line  a third 
as  long  as  the  shell.  But  you  will  also  notice  a consider- 
able number  with  little  or  no  length  of  hinge-line.  The 
valves  come  to  a point.  The  ventral  valve  projects  much. 
The  sinus  is  mostly  deep  and  the  fold  sharp  and  high. 
These  are  RTiyn-cho-neV -la.  There  are  many  species. 

You  remember  that  we  laid  the  corals  one  side  at  the 
beginning.  These  may  be  taken  up  and  learned  in  a sim- 
ilar way.  * But  I am  not  here  attempting  to  make  a pal- 
aeontological presentation.  I wish  only  to  show  that  a 
well-informed  instructor  may  advantageously  go  to  the 
fields  and  teach  from  nature  rather  than  from  books. 

Suppose  again,  the  teacher  is  located  upon  the  fossili- 
ferous  region  of  Nashville,  Tennessee.  He  may  proceed 
as  I have  indicated  for  Cincinnati.  Or  he  may  vary  the 
method.  1.  He  may  spend  three  or  four  days  with  his 
pupils  in  making  a collection  of  fossils.  2.  He  may  range 
over  the  hills  and  note  the  characters  of  the  outcropping 


*See  the  author’s  elementary  treatment  of  corals  in  Geological  Studies, 


188 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


limestones,  studying  them  as  I have  indicated  for  a quarry. 
3.  He  may  study  the  succession  of  strata  as  exposed  along 
the  Cumberland  Eiver — having  pupils  discriminate  them, 
measure  their  thicknesses,  describe  them,  make  diagrams 
of  them,  and  determine  the  accordances  found  at  different 
exposures.  4.  He  may  study  the  springs  and  the  under- 
ground streams,  and  ascertain  what  are  the  chances  of 
their  pollution.  5.  He  may  direct  attention  to  the  sul- 
phur waters,  and  inquire  what  is  the  source  of  their  sul- 
phur. 6.  He  may  cause  his  pupils  to  assort  their  collec- 
tions of  fossils,  and  then  proceed  to  study  them  in  such 
manner  as  I have  indicated  for  Cincinnati. 

3.  A Lake-shore  Region,  as  at  Milwaukee  or  at  Chicago 
or  Evanston,  Illinois ; Monroe  or  Petoskey,  Michigan ; 
Sandusky,  Ohio,  or  Toronto,  Ontario.  Suppose  we  stand 
on  the  shore  of  Little  Traverse  Bay  at  Bay  View,  Michigan. 
The  rounded  pebbles  strew  the  beach.  By  the  water’s 
edge  they  are  white  and  clean,  for  the  waves  continually 
wash  them.  The  accumulation  rises  in  a gentle  slope  to 
the  height  of  five  or  six  feet,  where  it  terminates  abruptly. 
A few  feet  beyond  is  a little  valley,  and  still  farther  from 
the  shore  is  another  pebble  ridge  at  a somewhat  higher 
level.  This  is  partially  overgrown  with  vegetation. 
Apparently  the  lake-waters  never  reach  there  now  ; but  at 
some  former  time  they  must  have  piled  up  that  ridge  of 
pebbles.  Either  the  storms  were  severer,  or  the  waves 
stood  higher. 

But  glance  back  among  the  cedars  and  jack-pines — 
there  is  a still  higher  ridge  all  overgrown.  It  runs  paral- 
lel with  the  shore  as  far  as  we  can  trace  it.  If  the  other 
ridges  were  the  result  of  lake-action,  so  is  this.  They  are 
all  alike.  But  it  has  been  a century  or  more  since  this 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  189 


higher  ridge  was  formed.  Evidently  a century  or  more 
ago,  the  lake  must  have  stood  at  an  elevation  twenty-five 
feet  higher  than  at  present.  Walk  along  the  shore  as  far 
as  you  will,  you  find  such  a succession  of  beaches. 

There  is  much  more  to  discover.  Let  us  take  a walk 
back  from  the  lake.  The  surface  is  strewn  with  frag- 
ments of  limestone  rounded  and  regular,  and  they  are 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  See  these  magnificent  maples 
growing  in  this  northern  latitude.  They  find  a strong, 
calcareous  soil,  and  the  body  of  lake-water  protects  veg- 
etation from  the  severest  freezing  of  winter.  Notice 
the  rock-terraces — one,  two,  three.  They  are  old  ledges 
of  stratified  limestone.  They  are  the  gigantic  steps  into 
which  a great  formation  has  been  worn  and  broken  by 
some  action  exerted  at  an  altitude  of  fifty  to  one  hundred 
feet  above  the  present  level  of  the  lake.  What  sort  of 
action  produces  that  kind  of  result  ? 

Do  you  remember  the  limestone  cliffs  at  the  water’s 
edge,  a quarter  of  a mile  from  Petoskey  ? Do  you 
remember  how  the  strong  waves  pounded  the  face  of  the 
crumbling  cliff  ? How  the  great  fragments  strew  the 
shore,  which  had  tumbled  down  from  the  undermining 
by  the  waters.  These  lie  also,  under  the  water ; and 
there  are  the  bottom  shelves  of  the  bluff,  projecting  into 
the  lake,  and  cringing  beneath  the  crushing  blows  of  the 
waves.  Here  is  the  agent  which  destroys  formations.  It 
gnaws  away  the  outcropping  edges,  and  they  shrink  back 
in  steps  to  the  safer  positions. 

These  terraces  at  Bay  View  are  such  steps.  The  water 
must  have  been  up  to  them  once.  Yes,  confirmation  is 
furnished  by  the  lake-worn  pebbles  stretched  in  another 
beach  along  the  top  of  the  higher  terrace.  Follow  back. 


190 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  HiEOLOGY  ? 


Beach  rises  above  beach.  The  green  and  vigorous  forest 
has  grown  over  them  since  the  waves  fashioned  them. 
Many  a forest — for  these  trees  are  nourished  by  the  decay- 
ing forms  of  trees  which  have  been  prostrate  for  a century. 
Under  these  are  other  trunks  further  gone  to  decay  ; and 
still  deeper  are  the  relics  of  tree-growths  three  or  four 
generations  of  trees  back.  Up  to  a hundred  and  fifty 
feet,  more  or  less,  such  terraces  may  be  traced. 

Think  of  it.  If  this  bay  ever  stood  a hundred  and  fifty 
feet  higher  than  at  present,  the  whole  of  Lake  Michigan 
must  have  stood  at  the  same  height.  There  must  there- 
fore be  high  lake-beaches  all  around  this  bay  and  Lake 
Michigan.  Does  any  one  know  anything  of  them  ? Have 
you  ever  heard  about  such  lake-beaches  ? But  even  this 
is  not  all.  You  know  that  steamers  pass  through  the 
Straits  of  Mackinac  from  Lake  Michigan  into  Lake 
Huron.  These  two  lakes  must  stand  therefore,  nearly 
at  the  same  level.  Indeed,  it  is  understood  by  all,  that 
steamers  pass  all  the  way  from  Chicago  to  Detroit  and 
Buffalo.  There  cannot  be  much  difference  of  level  between 
Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan.  It  must  be  then,  that 
when  the  highest  beaches  at  Bay  View  were  formed,  the 
waters  of  all  the  lakes  from  Chicago  to  Buffalo,  stood  a 
hundred  and  fifty  feet  higher  than  at  present.  Have  you 
ever  heard  of  high  lake-beaches  along  the  south  side  or 
the  north  side  of  Lake  Erie  ? You  may  inquire  for  them. 
But  when  the  waters  were  thus  high,  where  was  St.  Clair 
river  ? Where  was  the  Detroit  river  ? How  much  of  the 
country  on  each  side  of  them  was  submerged  ? These 
inquiries  may  be  followed  out.  The  ancient  condition  of 
Niagara  river  may  be  reproduced  ; and  many  other  con- 
sequences of  the  high  water. 


APPLICATION"  OF  THE  OBSERVATION AL  METHOD.  191 


But  let  us  return  with  our  thoughts  to  Bay  View. 
What  sorts  of  stones  are  these  pebbles  along  the  shore  ? 
Almost  all  limestone.  These  are  the  ruins  of  the  old 
ledge  which  once  stood  here.  Many  of  these  ruins  are 
more  than  mere  stones.  Notice  the  beautiful  coral- 
structures  shown  on  some  of  their  surfaces.  These  are 
the  remnants  of  fossils  which  once  lay  buried  in  the  mas- 
sive strata  of  the  bluff.  The  same  may  still  be  found  in 
the  bluffs  both  sides  of  Petoskey.  Many  of  these  you 
have  seen  cut  by  the  lapidaries  of  Petoskey  and  beauti- 
fully polished.  I am  sorry  they  have  never  learned  better 
than  to  call  them  simple  ‘"'Petoskey  stones” — a name 
which  expresses  neither  science  nor  poetry. 

Corals  buried  in  the  bluff  ? Corals  are  products  of  the 
sea.  Yes.  These  fossils  testify  that  the  sea  once  covered 
this  region.  Was  that  before  or  after  the  high  water  of 
the  lakes  ? Was  the  lake  here  then  ? But  I have  seen 
the  same  corals  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  State:  and  the 
same  kinds  of  rocks.  Do  you  suppose  it  possible  that 
these  limestones  extend  across  the  width  of  the  State  ? 
And  that  the  ocean  covered  all  the  northern  part  of  the 
State  ? 

Examine  more  carefully  the  pebbles  on  the  beach.  Do 
you  observe  that  they  are  not  all  of  limestone  ? What  are 
these  blackish  and  greenish  stones  P Did  they  come  from 
the  crumbling  limestone  blufE  ? Impossible.  See,  here 
also,  is  a rounded  mass  of  granite — I must  give  you  the 
name  of  it — but  we  can  study  all  these  old  stones  after- 
wards. Old  stones — real  hardheads.  And  now  you 
probably  remember  that  "when  we  walked  inland  to  the 
high  beaches,  we  found  many  rounded  stones  which  were 
not  of  limestone.  Here  lies  one — very  interesting  and 


192 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


quite  peculiar — on  a stump,  by  the  office  of  the  Associa- 
tion. We  can  take  these  old  stones  and  examine  the 
minerals  which  they  contain,  and  learn  the  names  of  the 
rocks.  But  whence  come  they  ? That  question  you  can- 
not answer  ; but  I can  tell  you  that  I have  seen  the  same 
sorts  of  rocks  occurring  in  vast  formations  “in  place” 
on  the  north  of  Lake  Huron,  and  in  the  Upper  Peninsula 
of  Michigan.  These  regions  are  a hundred  miles  away ; 
but  unless  you  know  of  some  nearer  localities  where  such 
rocks  could  be  found,  we  shall  have  to  consider  whether  it 
is  possible  that  they  have  been  brought  a hundred  miles 
or  more  from  the  north.  And  then  if  we  decide  “yes,” 
we  shall  be  under  the  necessity  of  considering  what 
agency  is  capable  of  transporting  them. 

But  we  must  break  off.  We  seem  only  at  the  begin- 
ning of  lines  of  reasoning  suggested  by  the  various  facts 
presented  to  us  along  the  beach  at  Bay  View.  Some  suit- 
able person  may  follow  out  the  threads  of  thought  and 
the  connections  of  facts.  I aimed  only  to  show  that 
threads  of  thought  start  in  many  directions  from  Bay 
View. 

4.  On  the  Prairie,  as  at  Champaign,  Springfield  or  Mat- 
toon,  Illinois  ; La  Porte,  Indiana,  or  Three  Rivers,  Mich- 
igan. Within  reach  of  almost  all  prairie  localities,  may 
be  found  bowlder  or  gravel  ridges,  or  islands,  in  the  midst 
of  the  prairie  ; and  these  afford  the  same  opportunities 
for  geological  study  as  are  enjoyed  upon  a surface  univer- 
sally drift-covered.  Such  Drift  outcrops,  or  stray  bowl- 
ders, are  found  at  Englewood,  Normal  and  many  other 
places  near  Chicago.  But  if  we  wish  to  begin  the  study 
with  only  the  facilities  afforded  by  the  prairie  deposit,  we 
may  note  first,  the  dark  color  of  the  formation.  This  is 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  193 

like  the  color  of  ordinary  rich  soils.  As  in  these  it  arises 
from  the  presence  of  vegetable  matter,  so  probably  it  does 
on  the  prairie.  But  we  find  this  dark  soil-like  material 
extending  to  great  depth.  There  must  have  been  a pecu- 
liar action  to  accumulate  so  much  vegetable  matter.  But 
the  deposit  is  only  colored  by  vegetable  matter.  If  we  sub- 
ject it  to  burning,  nearly  all  remains ; and  this  appears 
to  be  chiefly  argillaceous  matter  and  extremely  fine  sand. 

Somewhere  in  the  neighborhood  we  shall  find  a deep 
excavation  for  some  purpose.  It  is  perhaps  a canal  or  a 
mining  shaft.  Here  much  of  the  material  thrown  out  is 
strictly  clayey,  and  of  bluish  or  whitish  color,  with  little 
evidence  of  vegetable  matter.  These  may  alternate  with 
black  materials.  Notice  the  horizontal  and  bedded  ar- 
rangement of  the  various  substances.  Do  they  not  look 
like  the  strata  or  beds  seen  in  a quarry  ? Do  they  not  appear 
to  have  been  laid  down  like  sediments  in  water  ? Indeed 
here  is  almost  a demonstration  of  this,  for  the  spade  has 
thrown  out  some  whitish,  decaying  shells.  Fifty  miles 
from  Lake  Michigan,  and  twenty  feet  above  the  surface, 
they  could  scarcely  have  been  derived  from  the  lake  as  we 
know  it.  Inspect  these  shell  fragments.  Inspect  them 
critically.  Are  they  the  remains  of  marine  shells  or  of 
fresh-water  shells  ? It  is  easy  to  decide.  If  you  are  not 
familiar  with  common  lake  and  river  shells,  you  have  now  a 
motive  to  make  a little  study  of  them.  But  I will  assume 
that  you  have  already  made  the  acquaintance  of  the 
common  mussels  ( Unio  and  Anodonta),  and  the  snail-like 
forms  which  are  called  Pal-u-di'-na  and  Me-lan'-i-a. 
These  crumbling  fragments  belonged  as  you  see,  to  fresh 
water  forms.  The  same  species  are  living  in  Lake  Mich- 
igan. There  must  have  existed  here  a lake.  It  must  have 


13 


104 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


been  large  enough  to  have  deposited  the  sediments  which 
form  the  wide  prairie.  It  must  have  been  a very  large 
lake.  Look  abroad  over  the  surface  of  the  prairie — how 
sea-like  the  wavy  expianse.  Its  very  exterior  gives  the 
expression  of  a drained  water  area. 

But  if  lake-water  stood  above  the  level  of  this  prairie 
surface,  where  wrere  its  shores  ? It  would  be  well  to  obtain 
the  elevation  of  this  region  above  Lake  Michigan.  This 
can  be  learned  from  the  railroad  surveys.  The  infor- 
mation can  generally  be  furnished  in  engineer’s  offices  in 
Chicago.  Suppose  this  point  twenty  feet  above  Lake 
Michigan.  Then  it  is  evident  that  the  shores  of  the  lake 
in  which  the  prairie  formation  was  deposited  must  have 
been  over  twenty  feet  above  Lake  Michigan.  Me  may 
pursue  the  search  for  surrounding  regions  high  enough  to 
serve  as  shore-barriers  for  the  great  prairie-lake ; and  I 
suggest  it  for  an  investigation.  But  for  the  present,  let 
us  leave  the  question  open.  We  see  plainly  the  evidence 
that  a lake  was  here,  higher  than  Lake  Michigan  is  now. 
It  is  also  a matter  of  common  knowledge,  that  in  the 
direction  of  Lake  Michigan,  there  was  no  shore.  In  short 
then,  the  prairie  lake  must  have  extended  into  Lake 
Michigan.  In  other  words,  Lake  Michigan  must  have 
stood  at  a higher  level,  and  must  have  spread  its  waters 
over  the  prairie  region. 

Here  we  arrive  again  at  the  evidence  of  a former  high 
condition  of  the  Great  Lakes.  The  terraces  which  sur- 
round the  lakes  supply  evidence  confirmatory  of  that 
which  the  prairies  furnish. 

The  bowlder-strewn  islands  to  which  I alluded  show 
that  the  prairie  formation  rests  on  the  Drift.  All  around 
the  margin  of  an  island  you  find  the  Drift  disappearing 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  195 


under  the  prairie.  The  Drift  was  here  before  the  prairie. 
The  Drift  was  here  before  the  lake  existed  whose  sediments 
formed  the  prairie.  In  all  the  regions  which  received  the 
Drift,  we  ought  to  find  Drift  by  digging  to  the  bottom  of 
the  prairie.  Now,  have  you  learned  any  facts  corroborat- 
ing this  inference  ? Have  bowlders  and  gravel,  so  far  as 
you  know,  ever  been  found  at  the  bottom  of  the  prairie 
deposit  ? 

Thus  we  may  reason.  It  is  confessed  that  the  data  of 
actual  observation  on  the  prairie  are  comparatively  few ; 
but  the  opportunities  for  reasoning  are  many  and  full  of 
interest.  Yet  the  teacher  on  the  prairie  would  do  well  to 
provide  himself  with  fragments  from  bowlders  found  at 
some  near  locality.  Bowlders  are  cheap  and  freightage 
is  cheap. 

5.  On  a Drift-covered  Surface,  as  at  Ann  Arbor  and 
most  parts  of  lower  Michigan,  and  generally  throughout 
the  northern  states  and  Canada.  Here  opportunities  for 
observational  study  are  excellent.  After  many  years’ 
experience,  I am  inclined  to  think  them  better  than  in 
any  other  situation.  With  quarries  or  river-gorges,  or 
fossils  readily  accessible,  some  things  can  be  better  studied 
than  in  a Drift-region.  But  by  no  means  so  many  things. 
If  the  phenomena  of  stratification  are  desired,  they  may 
be  seen  in  the  Drift  (if  imperfectly)  and  in  lake  deposits 
and  alluvial  sediments.  If  fossils  are  desired,  the  Drift 
often  supplies  a larger  number  of  species  than  a single 
formation  at  hand  ; for  the  Drift  has  brought  them  from 
many  formations,  and  we  are  prepared  to  declare  their 
origin.  As  organisms,  they  present  the  same  structures  as 
fossils  found  in  place.  Many  times,  delicate  structures 
are  better  preserved  under  the  weathering  received  in  the 


196 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


Drift  than  when  inclosed  in  the  solid  rock.  Most  of  the 
best  ana  minutest  descriptions  of  palaeozoic  corals  have 
been  based  on  specimens  found  in  the  Drift.  I have  cata- 
logued 175  species  of  Drift  fossils  at  Ann  Arbor,  and  I am 
sure  the  list  could  be  made  250. 

If  rock- specimens  are  desired,  the  Drift  is  an  exhaust- 
less reservoir  of  hundreds  of  species.  There  are  three 
hundred  species  and  marked  varieties  of  rocks  supplied 
by  the  Drift  of  Ann  Arbor.  These  rocks  possess  the 
same  characters  as  rocks  collected  from  the  ledge  ; and 
the  supply  is  such  that  a student  in  three  weeks  can 
accumulate  a larger  and  better  collection  than  by  a 
summer’s  search  over  the  outcropping  formations  of 
Lake  Superior  or  Massachusetts.  The  bowlder  rocks  sub- 
mit themselves  to  the  same  kinds  of  study  as  rocks  found 
in  place — be  it  macroscopic,  microscopic  or  chemical. 
They  form  as  beautiful  and  as  useful  a collection.  For 
all  the  ends  of  petrographic  study  they  answer  perfectly. 
It  is  only  as  indexes  of  the  geographical  geology  of  a 
district,  that  they  are  inadequate.  As  petrographic 
studies  have  acquired  new  and  great  importance  since 
microscopical  methods  and  polarized  light  have  been 
brought  into  requisition,  it  would  seem  that  a Drift  loca- 
tion ought  to  be  the  chosen  site  for  a petrographic  insti- 
tute. As  petrographic  studies  ought  to  hold  a prominent 
place  in  the  curriculum  of  a university,  a Drift  location 
is  one  of  the  most  suitable  as  a university  site. 

More  than  the  rock  and  mineral  constituents  of  the 
Drift  renders  it  a suitable  starting  point  for  the  student. 
The  Drift  presents  the  phenomena  of  bedding — many 
kinds  of  bedding.  Wells  and  springs  depend  on  acci- 
dents of  the  Drift.  The  Drift  is  the  source  of  many  min- 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  197 


eral  waters,  especially  carbonated,  calcareous  and  chalyb- 
eate. The  Drift  supplies  marl  and  travertin,  and  bog- 
iron  and  manganese  ores.  Reposing  on  the  Drift  are 
fluviatile  and  lacustrine  deposits,  and  beds  of  peat,  marl 
and  ochre.  Then  finally,  the  Drift  ever  presses  on  our 
attention  the  problem  of  its  origin  and  history,  and  sends 
us  into  other  countries  and  climes  to  search  for  acting 
causes  which  can  be  known  with  us,  upon  the  Drift,  only 
by  their  effects. 

I have  heard  it  objected  to  the  assumption  of  the  Drift 
as  a starting  point,  that  it  is  a complicated  effect,  and 
involves  problems  which  the  utmost  abilities  of  learned 
geologists  have  never  yet  fully  cleared  up.  It  is  enough 
to  reply  that  we  do  not  propose  to  begin  with  the  dif- 
ficulties of  the  Drift.  The  student  may  never  advance  far 
enough  to  grapple  with  them.  But  assuredly,  it  is  the 
Drift  which  supplies  us  with  all  our  simplest  and  most 
familiar  and  most  accessible  data.  Assuredly,  those  por- 
tions of  the  Drift  which  answer  such  a description  can  be 
neither  intricate  nor  out  of  reach  of  children. 

It  is  not  my  purpose  to  illustrate  here  the  details  of  a 
practicable  method  of  procedure  in  utilizing  the  Drift  as  a 
starting  point.  My  methods  are  before  the  world,*  and 
they  have  received  the  highest  sanction  of  many  teachers. 

I will  only  add  that  the  observational  method  in  its 
application  to  the  Drift  has  been  with  me  an  object  of 
thought  for  many  years.  'Though  the  text-books  to 
which  I have  referred  do  not  date  back  farther  than  1885, 
I can  remember  putting  the  method  in  practice  at  a 

*1  beg  to  refer  the  reader  to  my  two  text-books,  Geological  Excursions, 
for  very  young  students,  and  Geological  Studies,  for  maturer  students,  of  the 
elements  of  the  science.  Also  to  my  Walks  and  Talks  in  the  Geological 
Field,  written  especially  for  the  “ Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific 
Circle.” 


198 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


teachers’  institute  held  at  Brighton,  Michigan,  as  early  as 
1858.*  All  experience  and  all  reflection  have  convinced 
me  that  the  observational  method  is  quite  as  natural  and 
quite  as  practicable  in  geology  as  in  biology. 

I have  so  far  supposed  the  teacher  sufficient  of  an  expert 
to  make  proper  use  of  the  situation  in  which  he  is  placed. 
There  are  many  such  teachers,  especially  in  collegiate 
institutions ; and  their  best  method  in  treating  the  ele- 
ments of  geology,  is  to  begin  at  home.  A thoroughly 
competent  teacher  needs  no  text-book,  and  will  succeed 
best  without  one.  But  the  pupil  needs  a textual  help, 
however  competent  his  teacher.  This  is  especially  appar- 
ent in  the  attempt  to  reduce  to  logical  order  the  mass 
of  facts  accumulated  by  somewhat  desultory  observation. 

But  what,  the  reader  will  ask,  is  to  be  done  by  a teacher 
who  is  not  himself  an  independent  geologist  P There  are 
many  persons  who  find  themselves  called  upon  to  teach 
geology  without  having  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  ade- 
quate study  and  experience.  How  will  they  pursue  the 
observational  method  ? That  is  the  exact  question  which 
I placed  before  me  four  years  ago,  when  I fully  appreci- 
ated the  desirableness  of  this  method,  and  found  a body 
of  teachers  prepared  to  teach  only  from  text-books  framed 
on  the  old  didactic  plan.  I determined  to  write  the  de- 
tails of  a procedure  which  might  serve  as  a model.  In  sup- 
plying a model  to  teachers  scattered  in  various  situations, 
the  subject-matter  must  be  such  as  exists  in  every  situa- 
tion. I could  not  begin  with  fossils  of  any  particular 

* For  an  application  of  the  method  at  a rocky  gorge,  see  the  author's 
Sketches  of  Creation,  pp.  14-17.  For  application  at  a coal-mine,  see  the 
same,  pp.  139-148.  For  application  at  a peat-marsh,  see  Address  at  the  Annual 
Meeting  of  the  Michigan  State  Agricultural  Society , Lansing,  1865,  pp.  16-18. 
For  application  to  the  Drift,  see  the  writer’s  contribution  on  geology  to  the 
History  and  Statistics  of  Washtenaw  County.  1881.  pp.  141-152. 


APPLICATION  OF  THE  OBSERVATIONAL  METHOD.  199 


age,  because  the  fossils  of  dilferent  regions  are  of  dif- 
ferent ages ; and  besides,  some  regions  supply  no  fossils 
whatever.  I could  not  begin  with  strata  and  formations, 
because  many  regions  are  destitute  of  outcropping  strata. 
There  is  no  geological  feature  so  nearly  universal  as  the 
northern  Drift.  To  prepare  a guide  to  the  Drift  is  to 
supply  an  aid  to  teachers  throughout  the  northern  United 
States  and  Canada ; and  to  render  it  easy  for  teachers 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  Drift,  to  supply  themselves  with 
the  same  materials  as  those  who  live  in  districts  for  which 
the  text-guide  was  specially  prepared.  This  text-guide 
is  simply  the  printed  talk  of  the  living  professor.  The 
teacher  who,  without  due  preparation,  is  under  the  neces- 
sity of  taking  a class  in  geology,  or  chooses  to  take  a class 
in  geology,  has  no  need  to  hesitate.  By  proceeding  with 
the  text-book,  page  by  page,  the  subject  is  simple  and 
delightful  ; and  the  teacher  experiences  the  same  delight 
from  this  method  of  study  as  any  younger  pupil  enjoys, 
and  great  success  and  satisfaction  are  certain  to  be 
achieved.  I make  these  statements  no  longer  from  a theo- 
retical stand-point.  Scores  of  teachers  stand  ready  to 
testify  from  their  own  experience,  that  the  observational 
method  is  more  beautiful  in  practice  than  in  theory. 


XIII. 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS  OF  GEOLOGICAL 
TEACHING. 


HE  foregoing  pages  set  forth  the  position  held  by 


geology  in  the  public  schools  and  in  some  of  the 
universities.  Then,  with  a view  of  showing  this  to  be  an 
unworthy  position,  an  inquiry  is  made  as  to  the  relations 
of  geological  study  to  culture — intellectual  and  ethical, 
and  to  the  elements  of  modern  civilization.  The  superior 
claims  of  classical  and  literary  culture  are  incidentally 
brought  under  review.  The  relations  of  geological  study 
to  the  developing  powers  of  the  mind  are  discussed,  and 
contrasts  with  other  studies  are  drawn.  Every  aspect  of 
the  discussion  points  toward  the  same  conclusion — that 
the  best  interests  of  education  demand  for  geology  earlier 
and  larger  consideration.  The  practical  questions  are 
then  taken  up,  of  introducing  reforms  in  the  school-cur- 
riculum, and  of  securing  effective  instruction  in  geology, 
while  so  many  of  the  teachers  have  been  deprived  of  ade- 
quate training.  It  seems  appropriate,  in  concluding,  to 
offer  a resume  of  the  most  important  pedagogical  princi- 
ples laid  down  ; to  glance  at  modes  of  instruction  coordi- 
nate with  the  observational,  which  I have  more  especially 
urged  because  best  suited  to  early  years,  and  to  correlate 
the  important  work  of  popular  instruction  with  that 
especially  scholastic. 

The  so-called  “inductive  sciences”  are  by  no  means 
exclusively  inductive.  Nor  can  all  science-teaching  be 


200 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS. 


201 


conducted  exclusively  by  observational  methods.  On 
these  two  points  much  erroneous  doctrine  has  been  incul- 
cated, and  I wish  to  avoid  the  appearance  of  propagating 
it.  Aside  from  certain  rational  principles  which  regulate 
all  intelligential  processes,  it  may  be  said  that  the  so-called 
inductive  sciences  begin  by  induction,  and  are  founded 
on  facts  of  observation.  The  knoivledge  of  the  facts  is 
the  condition  of  the  existence  of  the  science.  The  facts, 
while  not  constitutive  of  science,  are  the  data  of  science ; 
and  in  a process  of  education  they  must  be  acquired.  A 
real  portion  of  the  science  consists  of  the  body  of  gener- 
alizations based  on  the  facts.  Any  real  knowledge  of  the 
science  must  grasp  these  principles.  But  the  body  of 
propositions  generalized  from  the  data  of  science  may 
next  be  employed  as  grounds  of  deductive  inference. 
Only  thus  does  science  attain  to  a knowledge  of  facts 
inaccessible  to  observation.  Thus  science  becomes  a seer, 
and  her  vision  penetrates  beyond  the  limited  range  which 
bounds  the  ken  of  the  human  race.  It  is  only  by  deduc- 
tion from  generalized  principles  that  geology,  for  instance, 
can  venture  any  affirmation  concerning  the  history  of  the 
world  in  the  ages  before  human  observation,  or  can  pre- 
dict vicissitudes  impending  in  the  remote  future.  Those 
portions  of  a science  reasoned  out  from  general  principles 
often  constitute  its  most  important  domain.  They  gen- 
erally afford  the  most  entertaining  and  inspiring  themes 
for  contemplation,  and  this  is  evidently  because  the 
method  carries  us  through  time  and  space  and  causation 
to  distances  most  remote  from  the  little  circle  which  lim- 
its the  sphere  of  facts  merely  observed. 

We  are  thus  reminded  that  the  subject  matter  of  a 
science,  aside  from  the  transcendental  concepts  and 


202 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY? 


cognitions  which  are  always  implied,  consists  of  : 1 . Facts 
of  observation.  2.  Principles  generalized  from  the  facts. 
3.  Other  facts  deduced  from  those  principles. 

Here  are  three  different  kinds  of  knowable  materials  to 
be  dealt  with  by  the  teacher  of  science.  As  to  the  facts, 
I hope  1 have  made  it  plain  in  the  preceding  pages  that 
the  most  effective  method  of  imparting  a knowledge  of 
them  to  others  is  the  observational.  If  the  facts  of 
science  are  to  be  learned,  the  best  way  is  to  bring  the 
facts  and  the  learner  together.  The  method  of  the  kin- 
dergarten, the  laboratory  and  the  field  is  truly  the  most 
efficient  and  the  most  agreeable.  Too  much  cannot  be 
said  of  the  importance  of  giving  full  exercise  to  the  per- 
cipient faculties,  within  all  the  range  where  their  activity 
is  possible.  But  next,  if  direct  observation  is  impossible, 
the  pictorial  method  is  the  best  substitute,  provided  the 
pictures  are  intelligible  and  correct.  Poor  pictures  are 
misleading  and  a weariness.  But  if  these  are  not  available 
in  imparting  a cognition  of  the  facts,  we  must  employ 
the  descriptive  method.  Here  everything  depends  on  the 
clearness  of  the  describer’s  conception  of  the  thing,  and 
the  power  of  the  learner  to  picture  mentally  the  thing 
described.  These  are  powers  of  the  imagination.  Their 
exercise  by  the  teacher  gives  vividness,  reality  and  clear- 
ness to  the  fact  set  forth.  Their  exercise  by  the  learner 
gives  vividness  of  conception  which  is  the  next  thing  to 
visual  perception.  In  the  description  of  objects  of 
natural  history,  some  describers,  with  the  object  before 
them,  cannot  phrase  a description  out  of  which  a picture 
could  be  formed.  Some  who  read  the  most  accurate  and 
vivid  descriptions  have  no  power  to  render  them  in  a 
clear  mental  picture.  Hence  the  descriptive  method  as  a 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS. 


203 


dernier  resort,  is  neither  to  be  employed  undiscriminat- 
ingly,  nor  condemned  unconditionally. 

Next,  as  to  the  generalizations,  the  ratiocinative  process 
of  acquisition  should  be  promoted  in  all  cases;  but  where 
the  powers  of  the  learner  are  incapable  of  seizing  the  gen- 
eralization, it  must  be  enunciated  dogmatically.  The 
generalization  is  the  first  attainable  constituent  of  the 
science.  It  is  of  preeminent  importance,  and  is  imagined 
by  some  to  be  the  only  genuine  scientific  material.  It  is 
well  if  the  pupil  can  view  the  facts  under  such  a presenta- 
tion as  to  draw  the  inference  for  himself.  But  the  infer- 
ence must  come  into  his  possession,  if  only  received  on 
the  authority  of  the  teacher. 

As  to  the  deductive  materials  of  science,  they  presume 
the  existence  of  generalized  principles,  and  their  acquisi- 
tion by  one  of  the  two  methods  just  indicated.  The 
deductive  inferences  from  them  should  be  drawn  by  the 
unaided  action  of  the  learner’s  intelligence,  where  the 
process  is  not  too  recondite.  More  frequently,  however, 
the  learner  can  do  no  better  than  to  listen  to  the  detail 
of  inferences  drawn  by  a teacher  of  adequate  knowledge, 
reflection  and  power  of  statement.  The  teaching  is  either 
ratiocinative  or  dogmatic. 

The  data  and  principles  of  science  and  of  teaching,  thus 
recalled  to  mind,  reveal,  manifestly,  a certain  range  of 
scientific  knowledge  which  may  be  approached  by  the 
observational  method,  and  should  be  so  approached.  But 
this  does  not  justify  any  extreme  or  exclusive  dogmas. 
The  acquisition  of  all  which  remains  must  be  left  to  the 
action  of  the  learner’s  ratiocinative  powers,  or,  more  fre- 
quently, to  the  dogmatic  enunciations  of  the  teacher. 
This  discrimination  cannot  possibly  be  ignored.  To 


204 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


insist  that  all  scientific  acquisition  shall  be  by  the  obser- 
vational method,  is  to  betray  ignorance  of  the  material 
of  science.  The  most  important,  the  most  real  and  the 
only  fundamental  part  of  science  is  accessible  only  to 
rational  perception,  not  to  sensible  perception.  To 
denounce  the  didactic  or  descriptive  presentation  of  facts 
is  to  assume  that  all  facts  can  be  brought  before  the  sense 
of  the  learner,  and  this  is  a baseless  assumption.  To 
denounce  all  dogmatic  statement  of  general  principles,  is 
to  assume  that  the  tottering  intellect  of  the  young  learner 
is  capable  of  drawing  the  same  generalizations  as  have 
been  framed  by  the  sturdiest  efforts  of  experts,  and  this  is 
a baseless  assumption.  To  denounce  all  dogmatic  state- 
ment of  deductive  inferences  is  to  confess  inability  to  per- 
ceive the  cogency  of  a priori  evidence,  and  thus  abdicate 
the  privilege  of  passing  judgment  on  it;  or,  if  the  validity 
of  deductive  science  is  admitted,  it  is  to  assume  that  the 
learner  is  already  capable  of  taking,  unsupported,  the 
loftiest  flights  of  scientific  speculation — a consequence, 
the  very  mention  of  which  annihilates  the  assumption. 
There  must  be  sometimes  a descriptive  statement  of  facts. 
There  must  be  a dogmatic  delivery  of  inductive  doctrines. 
There  must  be,  unless  we  would  have  our  teaching  grossly 
defective,  a frequent  dogmatic  exposition  of  the  necessary 
consequences  of  established  principles. 

Finally,  as  to  the  times  and  circumstances  under  which 
these  various  methods  of  teaching  may  be  employed,  a 
few  words  may  be  offered.  Let  us  first  consider  the 
learner  of  tender  years.  It  requires  no  argument  to  make 
it  appear  that  the  generalized  and  deductive  principles  of 
science  are  not  appropriate,  or,  in  any  event,  are  less 
appropriate,  than  the  facts,  to  the  active  percipient 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS. 


205 


powers  and  the  late-awakened  reflective  powers  of  the 
young,  It  seems,  however,  to  require  argument  to 
establish  the  belief  in  the  minds  of  educators,  that 
the  learning  of  the  facts  of  science  is  positively  suit- 
able to  the  faculties  and  aptitudes  of  the  young.  If 
the  proposition  were  accepted,  we  should  not  see  chil- 
dren and  youths  shut  up  for  years  to  the  abstractions 
of  arithmetic  and  grammar,  the  soporific  and  com- 
paratively unproductive  details  of  historical  names  and 
dates,  or  the  meaningless  and  profitless  lists  of  capes  and 
headlands  along  some  remote  barbaric  shore.  I am  not 
denying  the  usefulness  of  these  things,  nor  even  their 
comparative  usefulness.  I strongly  feel,  however,  that 
during  the  stage  of  childish  perceptivity,  there  is  greater 
appropriateness  and  productiveness  in  the  exercise  of 
the  faculties  upon  facts  of  present  interest,  and  which 
actually  enter  into  the  organization  of  sciences  of  tran- 
scendent influence  and  importance.  But,  whatever 
finally  may  be  agreed  as  to  the  propriety  of  introducing 
the  natural  sciences  to  the  attention  of  the  child,  it  can 
hardly  be  denied  that  the  most  rational  method  of  doing 
this  is  to  bring  the  child  into  contact  with  the  facts,  and 
leave  his  own  mind,  as  far  as  it  is  able,  to  draw  the  gen- 
eral inferences  to  which  the  facts  point.  It  follows  that 
books  and  teachers  which  aim  at  a systematic,  synthetic 
presentation  of  one  of  the  natural  sciences,  forget  the 
order  of  development  of  mental  faculties,  and  prepare  to 
leave  a sense  of  weariness  and  disgust  where  there  might 
be  a feeling  of  interest  and  delight.  The  only  rational 
procedure  with  the  child,  in  the  study  of  rudimentary 
geology,  for  instance,  is,  therefore,  to  take  him  into  the 
field  and  permit  his  faculties  of  observation  and  thought 


206 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  GEOLOGY  ? 


to  lead  him,  by  the  natural  processes  of  investigation  and 
discovery,  to  the  apprehension  of  those  principles  which 
constitute  the  inductive  department  of  the  science.  His 
own  faculties  then  are  active,  and  to  some  extent,  in  all 
cases,  the  principles  reached  are  principles  discovered; 
the  child  feels  a consciousness  of  success — a pride  in  it, 
an  exhilaration  over  it,  and  the  whole  exercise  is  a 
delight. 

If  the  case  be  that  of  a person  entering  on  a thorough 
course  of  scientific  study,  then  equally,  an  examination  of 
the  facts  which  constitute  the  data  of  the  science  is  the 
first  thing  in  natural  order.  This  is  the  nature  of  the 
study  in  an  elementary  course,  whether  the  pupil  be  a 
child  in  the  grammar  school  or  a senior  in  college.  But 
the  style  of  the  presentation  will  vary  with  the  maturity 
of  the  learner,  and  so  will  the  prompting  needed  in  draw- 
ing the  appropriate  lessons  from  the  facts.  It  is  a need- 
lessly prosaic,  heavy  and  deadening  process  to  start  a 
course  in  science  with  the  conning  and  memorizing  of 
abstract  general  statements  which  rest  on  no  evidence 
visible  to  the  learner,  and  sustain  no  recognized  relation 
to  any  body  of  knowledge  which  interests  and  inspires, 
and  lifts  up  the  mind.  With  all  the  inspiration  which 
belongs  to  science,  it  is  easy  to  give  it  a cold  and  soporific 
presentation  to  the  beginner.  The  order  of  ideas  in  the 
historic  development  of  a science  is  nature’s  order  in  the 
development  of  the  same  ideas  in  the  individual  mind. 
What  is  most  natural  is  most  pleasant  and  most  profitable. 

As  the  study  of  the  science  proceeds,  the  student’s 
mind  is  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  higher  generali- 
zations, and  the  far-reaching  results  of  deductive  reason- 
ing. The  skilful  teacher  will  cause  the  data  to  pass 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS. 


207 


before  the  learner’s  mind  in  such  order  as  to  prompt  the 
mind  through  its  own  energy,  to  reach  these  inferences 
as  original  discoveries.  That  is  the  best  teaching,  and 
those  are  the  best  text-books,  which  secure  the  most  of 
this  productive  spontaneity.  But,  as  before  stated,  much 
must  always  be  enunciated  by  authority.  Especially, 
while  the  person  continues  in  the  relation  of  pupil  rather 
than  independent  investigator,  will  it  remain  appropriate 
and  best  for  the  teacher  in  his  own  language  and  way, 
to  enlarge  upon  the  far-reaching  consequences  of  those 
modes  of  being  and  action  which  are  expressed  in  the 
higher  generalizations  of  science.  To  trace  those  conse- 
quences leads  the  learner’s  thoughts  and  imagination  into 
realms  so  remote  from  present  experience  that  novelty 
and  wonder  lend  new  incentives  to  attention  and  add 
exalted  interest  to  the  conceptions  of  the  science.  These 
higher  generalizations  and  loftier  deductions  are  a grand 
sequel  to  the  earlier  details  of  facts  and  the  later  formu- 
lation of  doctrines,  and  they  may  advantageously  be 
reserved  for  formal  lecture  presentation. 

There  are  still  other  circumstances  in  which  every 
teacher  of  science  is  liable  to  find  himself  sometimes 
placed.  Multitudes  of  persons  who  cannot  or  will  not 
pursue  any  thorough  course  of  scientific  study,  still  desire 
a knowledge  of  the  grand  results  of  science.  This,  indeed, 
is  all  which  the  world  at  large  cares  for.  It  is  iu  truth  all 
which  enters  into  the  cultural  influence  which  science 
exerts  upon  the  intelligence  of  the  masses.  Now,  as  has 
been  shown,  this  class  of  scientific  knowledge,  to  those 
who  have  not  reasoned  up  to  it  from  the  facts,  must 
necessarily  be  imparted  by  means  of  dogmatic  state- 
ments, and  the  learner  must  rest  content  with  the  results. 


208 


SHALL  WE  TEACH  CxEOLOGY  ? 


ignorant,  largely,  of  the  data  from  which  they  have  been 
reached.  This  may  be  half-knowledge,  but  beyond  ques- 
tion, it  may  be  very  interesting  and  very  valuable  knowl- 
edge. This  is  the  department  of  scientific  knowledge 
best  suited  for  impartation  through  popular  lectures.  It 
is  the  aspect  of  science  to  which  the  popular  intelligence 
always  turns  with  eagerness.  Still,  it  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  the  highest  appreciation  requires  the  exclusion 
of  all  statements  of  fact.  The  mind — even  the  popular 
mind — takes  delight  in  its  own  activity.  It  likes  to 
trace  the  relations  of  causality  by  means  inductive  and 
deductive.  The  lecturer,  for  instance,  may  direct  the 
attention  of  his  hearers  to  the  familiar  phenomena  of 
erosion,  occuring  within  the  narrow  sphere  of  his  own 
observation.  The  hearer  will  easily  follow  the  generaliza- 
tion of  this  action  into  a universal  phenomenon  ; and 
then,  by  a mental  process  equally  agreeable,  he  will 
accompany  the  lecturer  in  a delineation  of  the  ulterior 
consequences  of  such  geological  action.  The  experi- 
mental sciences  afford  superior  opportunities  for  conduct- 
ing the  hearer  over  the  steps  of  fact,  generalization  and 
deduction.  But,  to  assume  that  no  popular  instruction 
in  science  is  legitimate  which  does  not  accompany  every 
conclusion  by  its  appropriate  proof,  is  the  affectation  of  a 
mind  which  has  been  running  in  a rut. 

To  summarize  results,  we  may  say  that  instruction  in 
natural  science  intended  for  youthful  learners,  should 
deal  chiefly  with  the  concrete  data,  giving  occasional 
glimpses  of  the  ratiocinative  procedures  to  be  based  on 
them.  Definitions  and  general  enunciations  should  come 
at  the  end  instead  of  the  beginning.  This  work  compasses 
the  rudiments  of  the  science.  For  all  persons  entering  on 


PRINCIPLES  AND  METHODS. 


209 


a thorough  course,  a similar  method  should  be  pursued, 
extending  the  range  of  logical  inferences  as  knowledge 
accumulates,  or  the  maturity  of  the  learner  is  more 
advanced.  The  inductive  method  may  well  be  supple- 
mented by  formal,  descriptive,  didactic  and  dogmatic 
presentations.  This  instruction  may  cover  the  funda- 
mental facts  and  doctrines,  and  the  prominent  theories  in 
the  science.  It  embraces  the  elements  of  the  subject,  and 
ought  always  to  be  acquired  during  the  preparation  for 
college.  The  third  phase  of  scientific  teaching,  which  may 
be  noted  as  collegiate,  should  combine  the  same  method 
with  a larger  supplement  of  lectures  designed  to  gather 
into  a unity,  with  a clearer  coordination  of  parts,  the 
somewhat  disjointed  results  of  observational  and  inductive 
study,  and  to  lead  the  learner's  mind  over  the  lofty 
ranges  of  remoter  generalization,  and  ulterior  results  of 
the  causes  in  action.  A fourth  form  of  presentation  is  the 
popular,  in  which  the  interest  and  profit  of  the  learner 
require  a minimum  of  facts  and  a maximum  of  general 
conceptions.  Thus  the  method  of  instruction  in  natural 
science  is  not  one  and  uniform.  It  must  vary  with  the 
subject  matter  and  with  the  age  and  aims  of  the  learner. 
It  may  be  rudimentary , preparatory,  collegiate  or  popular, 
and  in  each  case  a different  proportion  of  the  concrete 
and  reflective  constituents  of  science  must  be  presented 
to  the  mind. 


INDEX 


A 

Abstraction,  in  culture,  28  ; in 
geology,  44. 

Adrian,  response  of,  15,  20. 
Advancement,  alleged  insuffi- 
cient, 14. 

Agassiz,  L. , and  geology  teaching, 

171. 

Agassiz  Association,  significance 
of,  11,  169. 

Ann  Arbor  and  artesian  wells, 

111. 

Ann  Arbor  schools  and  geology, 
124. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  on  culture,  66; 
admissions  by,  67,  96;  com- 
plaints of,  67,  96;  views  of, 
discussed,  68. 

Artesian  wells  and  geology,  110. 
Attention,  how  best  controlled, 
123. 

Audiences,  public,  instruction  of, 

208. 

B 

Bain,  on  order  of  studies,  119. 
Balance  of  education  desired,  133. 
Ballard,  H.  H.,  service  of,  to 
science,  169. 

Battle  Creek,  response  of,  20. 

Bay  City,  response  of,  15,  20; 

reply  to,  172,  173. 

Bay  View  as  place  for  study,  188. 
Beaches  and  what  they  teach,  189. 
Bonneval  on  order  of  studies,  118. 
Bowlders  and  their  suggestions, 
191. 

Brachiopods  studied,  182, 
Branner,  J.  C.,  exposing  frauds, 
112. 

Buchanan,  response  of,  20. 


c 

Cadillac,  response  of,  15,  20. 

Caro,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Chamberlain,  D.  H.,  on  linguistic 
culture,  69  ; completion  of  ar- 
gument of,  72,  73. 

Chamberlin,  T.  C.,  on  scientific 
habit,  91,  94,  95. 

Charlatanism  exposed,  112. 

Chase,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Chautauqua  Circle,  significance 
of,  11,  170. 

Chelsea,  response  of.  16. 

Chesaning,  response  of,  20. 

Chicago  and  artesian  wells,  111. 

Chronicle  quoted,  142,  165. 

Cincinnati  as  place  of  study,  181. 

Civil  engineer,  motives  of,  to 
study,  2. 

Civilization  and  geology,  96. 

Classical  department  thronged,  5. 

Classics  and  culture,  55. 

Classification  not  provided  for  in 
trivium  of  culture,  148. 

Coal  and  geology,  109. 

Coal  search  misdirected,  113. 

Coldwater,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Comenius  on  order  of  studies, 
117;  on  attention,  123;  on  gen- 
eral range  of  studies,  134. 

Comparative  geology,  49. 

Comparison  in  culture,  27:  in 
geology,  44;  not  provided  for 
in  trivium  of  culture,  148. 

Compayre,  on  culture,  59;  dis- 
cussed, 60. 

Comstock  lode,  107. 

Condillac  and  order  of  studies, 
116. 

Conservatism  at  Ypsilanti,  19, 
166. 


211 


212 


IHDEX. 


Control  by  literary  interests,  10. 

Cooling  globe,  35,  37,  84. 

Courses  in  the  university,  160. 

Crosby,  W.  0.,  and  geology  teach- 
ing, 170,  171. 

Culture  and  knowledge  the  true 
aim,  24,  142 ; opinion  on,  from 
Chronicle,  142. 

Culture  attributed  to  the  tradi- 
tional studies,  4. 

Culture  in  education,  24 ; out- 
come of  controversy  about,  78. 

Culture,  universal,  afforded  by 
geology,  52.  ' 

Culture,  what  is  it?  25,  33;  based 
on  Greek,  69 ; defined  by  Payne, 
138,  139,  140;  Payne  on,  con- 
troverted, 141. 

D 

Decatur,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Deduction  in  inductive  sciences, 
201. 

Deductive  faculty  in  culture,  28 ; 
in  geology,  48,  206. 

Deductive  reasoning  applied,  36, 
201. 

Delight  in  out-door  study,  124, 
126. 

Delineation,  art  of,  in  geology, 
47. 

Denton,  W.,  and  geological  teach- 
ing, 171. 

Departments  to  be  fostered,  11. 

Descriptive  method,  202. 

Diploma  relation,  influence  of, 
162. 

Diploma  schools,  162. 

Disciplinary  education  value,  137, 
138. 

Discipline  in  education,  23,  25; 
see  also  “Culture.” 

Discovery  in  geological  study,  125. 

Dissatisfaction  of  the  public,  11. 

Diversified  aspects  of  geological 
study,  34. 

Doctrines  of  geology,  45. 

Dogmatic  method,  203. 

Drift-covered  surface,  as  place 
for  study,  195;  a favorable 
place  to  begin,  197,  199. 


E 

Earlv  study  of  geology,  119,  123, 
124,  130,  131,  132. 

East  Saginaw,  response  of,  16,  20. 

East  Tawas,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Eaton  Kapids,  response  of,  16,  20: 

Economic  geology,  108. 

Education,  object  of,  23,  24,  71. 

Education  values,  136 ; discus- 
sion on,  141;  of  geology,  154; 
quantitative  estimates  of,  155. 

Emotion  excited  by  geology,  39. 

Emotion,  when  compatible  with 
study,  127 ; erroneously  pro- 
nounced incompatible,  128, 129. 

Engineer,  motives  of,  to  study,  2. 

Enthusiasm,  126. 

Essexville,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Ethical  culture  in  geology,  52; 
considered,  83. 

Ethical  influence  of  preoccupation 
of  mind,  89. 

Ethical  influence  as  a reflex  re- 
sult, 90. 

Evart,  response  of,  16. 

F 

Facilities  alleged  lacking,  14,  172. 

Faculties  concerned  in  culture,  26. 

Facts  in  geology,  44,  45. 

Faith,  enlightenment  of,  88,  114. 

Familiar  things  the  starting  point 
in  geology,  130. 

Feeling  and  thought  not  mutually 
exclusive,  128. 

Fenton,  response  of,  16,  19. 

Firemist,  37. 

Flint,  response  of,  16,  20. 

Fools’  gold,  113. 

Fossiliferous  region  for  study, 
181. 

Foster  and  Whitney,  survey  un- 
der, 102. 

Froebel  on  Pestalozzi,  117. 

Future  career  of  the  earth,  36,  42, 
84. 

G 

Gas  and  geology,  109. 

] Gaseous  state  of  matter,  37. 


INDEX. 


213 


Gas  search  misdirected,  112. 

Generalization  in  geology,  44. 
See  also  “ Induction.” 

Geography  as  culture  study,  144, 
149,  150. 

Geologic  conceptions,  ethical  in- 
fluence of,  83. 

Geologic  surveys.  See  “ Surveys.” 

Geologists  in  the  United  States, 
98,  99,  100,  101,  102,  103,  104. 

Geology  and  culture,  44,  142. 

Geology  an  inductive  science,  and 
more,  35. 

Geology  and  modern  civilization, 
96,  108. 

Geology  crowded  out,  163,  167. 

Geology,  disadvantages  of,  7 ; a 
rival  with  professional  studies, 
8;  grounds  of  rivalry,  8. 

Geology  estimated  by  Payne,  139. 

Geology  in  the  order  of  studies, 
115. 

Geology,  in  its  diversified  aspects, 
34  ; logical  divisions  of,  154 ; 
begins  out  of  doors,  131;  edu- 
cation values  of,  154. 

Geology,  in  the  schools,  13,  14; 
in  high  schools,  13,  163 ; in  re- 
lation to  stage  of  development, 
53,  171 ; not  requiring  costly 
preparations,  172. 

Geology  taught,  by  object  lessons, 
13,  168 ; by  supplementary 

reading,  14 ; by  general  exer- 
cises, 168;  as  physical  geogra- 
phy, 14,  168. 

Gill,  Theodore,  on  culture,  77. 

God  implied  in  geology,  85. 

Grammar  not  suited  to  childhood, 
74,  205. 

Grammar  schools  and  geology, 
19. 

Grand  Haven,  response  of,  16. 

Grand  Rapids,  response  of,  20 ; 
and  salt,  110. 

Greenville,  response  of,  21. 

Greek  as  means  of  culture,  69,  70, 
71;  why  not  efficient,  74:  use- 
fulness of,  limited,  76;  em- 
ployed in  science,  76. 

Greek  literature  for  culture,  75. 


H 

Habit  scientific,  ethical  influence 
of,  92 ; evils  of  absence  of,  93. 

Hall,  James,  geologist,  99. 

Hastings,  response  of,  16,  21. 

Hayden’s  survey,  103. 

Heated  interior  of  earth,  35. 

Hemipronites,  186. 

Hillsdale,  response  of,  17. 

History  as  a culture  study,  143, 
151,  152. 

Hitchcock,  E.,  quoted,  85. 

Houghton,  D.,  surveys  under, 

102. 

Howard  City,  response  of,  17, 

21. 

Howell,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Humanities,  58. 

Huxley  at  Mason  College,  68. 

Hyatt,  Alpheus,  and  science- 
teaching, 170,  171. 

I 

Illinois  and  geological  teaching, 

170. 

Imagination,  in  culture,  29 ; in 
geology,  47,  51,  202;  not  pro- 
vided for  in  culture  trivium, 
148. 

Imlay  City,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Incentives  in  professional  study, 
2 ; in  academic  study,  4. 

Induction,  importance  of,  3;  in 
geology,  44,  206 : not  pro- 
vided for  in  trivium  of  cul- 
ture, 148. 

Inductive  geology,  37.  46. 

Inductive  powers  in  culture,  30; 
in  geology,  46. 

Inductive  sciences,  200;  divisions 
of,  202. 

Inhabitants  of  other  worlds,  41. 

Intellectual  delight,  126. 

Intelligence,  identity  of,  41. 

Interest  in  geology,  with  Michi- 
gan teachers,  13. 

Iron  and  geology,  109. 

Iron  Mountain,  response  of,  17, 

21. 

Ishpeming,  response  of,  21. 


214 


INDEX. 


J 


M 


Jackson,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Jesuitism  surviving  in  modern 
education,  82. 

Judgment  in  culture,  etc.,  27;  in 
geology,  44. 

K 

Kalamazoo,  response  of,  17. 

King’s  survey,  103;  exposure  of 
fraud,  112. 

Knowledge  an  end  in  education, 
24,  25,  53,  142. 

L 

La  Chalotais  on  order  of  studies, 

118. 

Lakanal  on  culture,  64 ; dis- 
cussed, 65  ; on  order  of  stud- 
ies, 118. 

Lake  Linden,  response  of,  21. 

Languages  in  culture,  71 ; in  ge- 
ology, 44. 

Lansing,  response  of,  21. 

Law  student,  motives  of  to  study, 

2. 

LeConte,  Joseph,  cited,  39. 

Lecture  method  of  instruction, 
207. 

Lept*na,  186. 

Liberal,  in  education,  33. 

Literary  pleasures,  56. 

Literary  studies  favored,  5;  why 
favored,  6. 

Literary  taste  in  culture,  32;  in 
geology,  46. 

Literature  and  linguistics  to  be 
sustained,  12. 

Literature  as  a culture  study, 
145,  147,  150,  151. 

Literature  a term  of  uncertain 
meaning,  145 ; how  used  by 
Payne,  146-7. 

Livelihood,  influence  of  in  edu- 
cation, 8. 

Lowell  on  linguistic  culture,  69, 
70. 

Low  esteem  of  geology,  1. 


Malebranehe  on  order  of  studies, 
116. 

Manchester,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Man  in  relation  to  the  universe, 
43,  84. 

Manistee,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Marine  City,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Marmontel  on  culture,  61;  dis- 
cussed, 62. 

Marshall,  response  of,  17. 

Mason  College,  68. 

Massachusetts  and  geological 
teaching,  170. 

Mathematics  in  geology,  49. 

Melania,  193. 

Memory  in  culture,  26,  28. 

Mental  arithmetic  and  culture. 
116. 

Method  at  a quarry,  178. 

Methods  and  principles  of  geo- 
logic teaching,  200,  209. 

Michigamme,  response  of,  17. 

Michigan,  geologv  in  schools  of, 
13,  170. 

Milford,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Mining  professorships,  106. 

Mining  schools,  106. 

Moral  reforms  immorally  pro- 
moted, 94. 

Morenci,  response  of,  17,  21. 

Motives  to  study,  2. 

Mount  Clemens,  response  of,  17. 

Mount  Pleasant,  response  of,  18, 

21. 

Museums  of  geology,  106. 

Muskegon,  response  of,  18. 

N 

Nashville,  response  of,  18,  21. 

Nashville,  Tenn.,  as  place  for 
study,  187. 

National  geological  survey,  104; 
appropriations  for,  105. 

Newaygo,  response  of,  18,  21. 

New  Baltimore,  response  of,  22. 

New  England  idea  on  order  of 
studies,  116. 

New  York  and  geological  teach- 
ing, 170. 


INDEX. 


215 


Nicole  on  order  of  studies,  117. 

Northville,  response  of,  22. 

o 

Observational  method,  53,  202. 

Observational  method  applied, 
176;  in  a quarry  region,  177 ; 
in  a fossiliferous  region,  181 ; 
in  a lake  shore  region.  188 ; on 
the  prairie,  192;  on  a Drift- 
covered  surface,  195,  197. 

Observation,  in  culture,  30;  the 
beginning  of  geology.  35,  44, 
53 ; appropriate  for  childhood, 

115,  119,  205;  accompanied  by 
reflection,  120;  deals  with  fam- 
iliar things,  130;  not  provided 
for  in  trivium  of  culture,  148. 

Ocean,  primeval,  38. 

Ohio  and  geological  teaching,  170. 

Order  of  studies  in  relation  to 
geology,  115. 

Orthis,  185,  187. 

Oscoda,  response  of,  22, 

Otsego,  response  of,  18. 

Out-of-door  study  an  advantage, 
131. 

Ovid,  response  of,  22. 

Owen,  D.  D.,  surveys  under,  102 

P 

Paludina,  193. 

Past  history  of  the  earth,  35. 

Paw  Paw,  response  of,  22. 

Payne,  W.  H.,  on  culture,  58, 
138  ; on  doctrine  of  prior  order 
of  sensible  things,  116,  119, 
121,  128 ; controverted,  121, 
122;  on  painful  stimulation, 
124;  on  exclusion  of  emotion, 
128;  on  sense  activity,  128;  on 
culture  value  of  studies,  139; 
controverted  on  education 
values,  141 ; on  trivium  of  cul- 
ture studies,  140,  143;  views 
of,  discussed,  149-58. 

Pedagogic  heresies,  132. 

Percipient  powers  in  geology,  44. 

Pestalozzi  on  order  of  studies, 

116,  117;  on  diversifying  edu- 
cation, 134. 


Petoskey  and  its  geology,  191. 

Petroleum  and  geology,  109. 

Philosophic  memory  in  culture, 
28. 

Photography  in  geology,  48. 

Physical  activity  of  childhood. 
123. 

Physical  geography  a medium  of 
geology,  14. 

Physiology  in  education,  142. 

Pictorial  aids,  202. 

Platform  instruction,  202. 

Plato  on  culture,  57:  discussed, 
57. 

Pontiac,  response  of.  22. 

Popular  reading,  169. 

Port  Huron,  response  of,  22. 

Portland,  response  of,  18,  22. 

Potsdam,  N.  T.,  as  place  of  studv, 
177. 

Powell’s  survey.  104. 

Practical  education  appreciated, 
3,  5. 

Practical  education  value,  137. 

Prairie  as  place  for  study,  192. 

Preoccupation  of  mind,  89. 

Preparation,  much  depending  on, 
81. 

Primary  schools  and  geology,  19. 

Primordial  condition  of  solar 
system,  40. 

Principles  and  methods  of  geolog- 
ical teaching,  200. 

Professional  motive  in  academic 
studies,  6. 

Professional  schools,  incentives 
in,  3. 

Public  opinion  on  utility  of  geol- 
ogy, 107,  169  ; grounds  of. 
108. 

Pupil  at  a quarry,  177;  in  a fos- 
siliferous region,  181 ; on  a lake 
shore,  188;  on  the  prairie,  192; 
in  a Drift  region,  195. 

Q 

Quadrivium  and  its  claims,  4. 

Quantitative  estimates  of  educa- 
tion values,  155. 

Quarry  region  and  geologic  study, 
179. 


216 


INDEX. 


Quincy,  response  of,  18,  22. 

Quintilian  on  order  of  studies, 

116. 

R 

Rabelais  on  order  of  studies,  116, 
117. 

Railroad  to  Pacific,  101. 

Rains,  aeonic,  38. 

Rank,  educational,  in  studies, 
136. 

Ratiocinative  method,  203. 

Reason  in  geology,  50. 

Reflection  accompanies  observa- 
tion, 120,  125. 

Renan  on  culture,  63. 

Reports,  geological,  of  States,  99, 
100. 

Responses  to  circular,  15,  159; 
general  tenor  of,  159;  replies 
to,  171. 

Revenue  not  the  proper  basis  of 
fostering  care,  11. 

Rbynchonella,  187. 

Rice,  W.  N.,  cited,  165. 

Rock  specimens  supplied  by  Drift, 
196. 

Romeo,  response  of,  18,  22. 

Rousseau  on  order  of  studies,  117. 

Ryerson,  response  of,  18. 

s 

Sacred  books  and  geology,  86. 

Saint  Ignace,  response  of,  19,  22. 

Saint  Louis,  response  of,  19,  22. 

Saginaw,  response  of,  22. 

Salt  and  geology,  109,  173. 

Satisfaction  and  geology,  15,  173. 

Schools,  duty  of,  beyond  prepa- 
ration for  college,  7,  164. 

Scientific  course  in  college,  79. 

Scientific  spirit,  31,  91,  157. 

Scientific  students  disparaged, 
79;  literary  pressure  on,  82. 

Sense  education,  121. 

Sense  memory  in  culture,  26. 

Sense  perceptions  in  culture,  30 ; 
in  geology,  46. 

Sherzer,  W.  A.,  and  geology,  173. 

Sill,  J.  M.  B.,  on  thought  and 
emotion,  129. 


Spalding,  V.  M.,  cited,  165. 

Specific  disciplinary  value,  136, 
143. 

Spencer  on  order  of  studies, 
119. 

Spiritual  influence  of  geology,  39, 
42,  86,  114. 

Stanton,  response  of,  22. 

Stars,  nature  of,  41. 

Starting  point  in  geological  his- 
tory, 38. 

Strophomena,  185. 

Struggle  for  existence,  6. 

| Studies  estimated  by  Pavne,  139, 
140. 

Style  improved  by  geology,  52. 
j Sully  on  prior  order  of  percep- 
tions, 122. 

Sun  a residuum,  41. 

Sunderland,  J.  T.,  on  geological 
study,  125. 

Surveys,  geological,  as  exponents 
of  opinion,  97 ; in  foreign  coun- 
tries, 97 ; in  the  states  of  Amer- 
ica, 98  ; under  the  American 
government,  100,  102,  103;  na- 
tional, 104;  private,  106. 

Sutro  tunnel,  107,  112. 

Symmetry  of  mental  development, 
*131,  133. 

T 

Taste  in  culture,  32. 

Teachers,  direction  of  preparation 
of,  7 ; favorable  views  of,  160, 
166.  169. 

Teaching,  a motive  in  prepara- 
tion, 7. 

Tecumseh.  response  of,  19,  22. 

Tenney,  S.,  and  science  teaching, 
170.' 

Text-book  question  in  geology.  14, 
174,  198,  206. 

Thought-memory  not  provided  for 
in  trivium  of  culture,  148. 

Thought,  vehicles  for  conveyance 
of,  72. 

Time  lacking  for  geology,  14. 

Three  Rivers,  response  of,  22. 

Tonic  disciplinary  values,  138, 
143. 


INDEX. 


an 


Training,  25,  71.  See  also  “Cul- 
ture.” 

Translation,  discipline  by,  62. 

Trenton,  response  of,  23. 

Trivium  and  its  claims,  4,  5. 

Trivium  of  culture-studies,  143, 
148;  values  of,  156,  158. 

u 

Unity  of  the  universe,  43,  84; 
ethical  influence  of,  83. 

Universal  culture  in  geology,  52. 

University  influencing  studies  in 
schools,  7,  14;  nature  of  antag- 
onism of,  to  geology,  160;  re- 
quirements in,  161. 

Useful  end  in  education,  23,  25, 
53. 

V 

Values,  educational,  136;  of  geol- 


ogy, 154;  quantitatively  esti- 
timated,  155. 

Value  of  education  pecuniarily. 
3,  96. 

Vassar,  response  of,  23. 

Verbal  memory  in  culture,  26; 
in  geology,  44  ; in  geography, 
145. 

w 

Wheeler’s  survey,  103. 

Whewell  on  order  of  studies,  116. 

White  Pigeon,  response  of,  23. 

Wisconsin  and  artesian  wells,  112. 

Y 

Young  learner,  204.  See  also, 
“ Early  Study.” 
j Ypsilanti,  response  of,  19. 


